本論文研究國語和台語的聲調在唱歌時的表現，並從語音的表現上著手研
究。整個研究中，共進行了兩個實驗。在第一個唱歌實驗中，請受試者唱出實
驗歌曲並進行錄音，事後再分析音檔，結果從F0 和時長（duration）兩個方面
探討。實驗結果發現，受試者用台語唱歌時，有在上升調(rising tone)再加上
額外音調的趨勢，而在用國語唱歌時，並無此現象。此現象在第二個感知實驗
中，也確實被證明有分辨上升調的功能。這些結果和Schellenberg(2013)研究
廣東話和國語類似，也論證了語言聲調數帶來的影響。

Speech melody and music melody are typically expressed via pitch. However, how
they influence each other has been an issue in both linguistics and musicology for a
long time. Ladd (2013) proposes two categories of lexical tone manifestation in singing,
one being structural and the other phonetic. This thesis considers phonetic
manifestations in examining the differences in expression of tone in Taiwanese and
Mandarin singing.
The first of the experiments discussed here asked native speakers to sing songs that
contain sets of minimal tone pairs under different environments (with accompaniment
or solo). The stimuli were embedded in a song which consists of two variations of a
melody written by Patrick Wong (Wong & Diehl 2002).
The results report on two aspects of tone: F0 and duration. Schellenberg (2013)
examines the phonetic manifestation of tone in singing in Cantonese and Mandarin,
showing that Cantonese singers tend to include a rising contour when singing words
with rising tones; Mandarin singers, however, do not. There are no significant
differences in duration in the two languages. As for Taiwanese, this thesis finds
speakers tend to include a rising contour when singing a word with rising tone.
Moreover, the durations of long tone group (rising and level tones) are longer than those
of the short tone group (falling tones). On the other hand, speakers do not mark any
tone in Mandarin phonetically in either F0 or duration.
The second of the experiments examines whether listeners can correctly determine
the words produced by singers in the singing experiment. The results suggest that
listeners distinguish the tones in Taiwanese by using the cues which discuss in the first
experiment.
These results are consistent with Schellenberg (2013). The production and
perception studies suggest that the speakers use some strategies to differentiate tones in
Taiwanese but not in Mandarin. This can be the effect of the size of tone inventory

References
Arppe, Antti. 2012. Package ‘polytomous’. Website: http://cran.r-
project.org/web/packages/polytomous/polytomous.pdf.
Bao, Zhiming. 1999. The Structure of Tone. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Boersma, P. and Weenink, D. 2010. PRAAT: doing phonetics by computer [Computer program]. Version 5.3.59, retrieved from http://www.praat.org/.
Chao, Y.R. 1930. A System of Tone-letters. La Maître phonétique. 45:24-27.
Chan, Marjorie, K. M. 1987. Tone and melody interaction in Cantonese and Mandarin songs, UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics. 68. 132-169.
Chen, M. Y. 1987. The syntax of Xiamen tone sandhi. Phonology Yearbook, 4, 109-
149.
Cheng, R. 1968. Tone sandhi in Taiwanese. Linguistics, 41, 19-42.
Cheng, R. 1973. Some notes on tone sandhi in Taiwanese. Linguistics, 100, 5-25.
Chiang, H. T. 1967. Amoy-Chinese tones. Phonetica, 17(2), 100-115.
Gandour, J. T. 1978. The perception of tone. Tone: A linguistic survey, 41-76.
Gandour, J. 1983. Tone perception in far eastern-languages. Journal of
Phonetics, 11(2), 149-175.
Howie, J. M. 1976. Acoustical studies of Mandarin vowels and tones (No. 6).
Cambridge University Press.
Hsu, Hui-chuan. 1989. Phonological acquisition of Taiwanese: a longitudinal case study. MA thesis.
Hsu, Hui-chuan. 2008. The mid level tone in Xiamen: H-registered or L-registered? Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 36(1), 73-105.
Huang, T. 2001. The interplay of perception and phonology in tone 3 sandhi in
Chinese Putonghua. Working papers in Linguistics-Ohio State University
Department of Linguistics, 23-42.
Hume, E., & Johnson, K. 2003. The impact of partial phonological contrast on
speech perception. In Proceedings of the XVth International Congress of
Phonetic Sciences.
Ladd, D.R. 2013. Singing in tone languages: Phonetic and structural effects. Text of talk presented at the 27th Annual Meeting of the Phonetic Society of Japan in Kanazawa in September 2013.
Laver, J. 1994. Principles of phonetics. Cambridge University Press.
Lee, C. Y., Lee, Y. F., & Shr, C. L. 2011. Perception of musical and lexical tones by
Taiwanese-speaking musicians. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, 130(1), 526-535.
Lin, Hwei-Bing. 1988. Contextual Stability of Taiwanese tones. Dissertation.
Lin, H. B., & Repp, B. H. 1989. Cues to the perception of Taiwanese tones. Language
and Speech, 32(1), 25-44.
Ohala, J. 1978. The production of tone. In V. A. Fromkin (ed.), Tone: a Linguistic Survey (pp. 5-39). New York: Academic Press.
Ohala, J., and Ewan, W. 1973. Speed of pitch changes. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 53, 345 (Abstract).
Patel, A. D. 2007. Music, language, and the brain. Oxford university press.
Peng, Shu-hui. 1997. Production and perception of Taiwanese tones in different tonal and prosodic contexts. Journal of Phonetics. 25, 371-400.
Pike, K. L. 1948. Tone languages: a technique for determining the number and type
of pitch contrasts in a language, with studies in tonemic substitution and fusion.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
Rose, P. 1987. Considerations in the normalization of the fundamental frequency of linguistic tone. Speech Communications. 6, 343-351.
Schellenberg, Murray. 2009. Singing in a tone language: Shona. In Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics (pp. 137-144). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
Schellenberg, Murray. 2013. The Realization of Tone in Singing in Cantonese and Mandarin. Dissertation.
Schneider, W., Eschman, A., and Zuccolotto, A. (2012). E-Prime User's Guide. Pittsburgh: Psychology Software Tools, Inc.
Surendran, Dinoj and Levow, Gina-Anne. 2004. The functional load of tone in Mandarin is as high as that of vowels. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2004. Nara, Japan, pp. 99-102.
Vondenhoff, Maaike. 2009. An Optimality Theoretical Model of the Influence of a
Sung Melody on the Interpretation of Mandarin Lexical Tones. M.A. Thesis.
University of Amsterdam.
Wee, L. H. 2007. Unraveling the relation between Mandarin tones and musical melody. Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 35(1). 128-143.
Wee, L. H. forthcoming. Linguistic Tone and Musical Tune. To appear in Rint Sybesma et al (eds.) Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics. Leiden: Brill.
Weingartner, F. F. 1970. Tones in Taiwanese, an Instrumental Investigation. Taipei, Taiwan: Taiwan University Press.
Wong, Patrick M. and Diehl, Randy L. 2002. How can the lyrics of a song in a tone language be understood? Psychology of Music. 30(2). 202-209.
Xu, Y. 2013. ProsodyPro — A Tool for Large-scale Systematic Prosody Analysis. In Proceedings of Tools and Resources for the Analysis of Speech Prosody (TRASP 2013), Aix-en-Provence, France. 7-10.
Yip, M. 2002. Tone. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zee, E. 1978a. Duration and intensity as correlates of F0. Journal of Phonetics. 6, 221-225.
Zee, E. 1978b. The interaction of tone and vowel quality. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics, 41, 53-67.
Zhang, L. 2013. Intonation effects on Cantonese lexical tones in speaking and singing (Doctoral dissertation, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University).
王振義. 1993. 歌仔平仄規律實質意義的探討. 《臺灣史田野研究通訊》27期.
王順隆. 2002. 「歌仔冊」的押韻形式及平仄問題. 《民俗曲藝》 136, 206-207.
朱曉農. 2005. 上海聲調實驗錄. 上海教育出版社.
李思恩. 2002. 國語歌曲中旋律與歌詞聲調的交互作用. 碩士論文.