國立清華大學

研究所所別：語言學研究所
論文名稱：論漢語焦點與分裂句結構
指導教授：蔡維天 教授
研究生：李惠琦

過去有不少前人從不同的面向研究漢語分裂句結構，例如鄧守信(1979)、李櫻(1980)、湯廷池(1983)、Ross(1983)、黃正德(1988)、邱慧君(1993)及曹逢甫(1994)都曾經討論過漢語的分裂句結構。然而，在前人的研究中，卻鮮少討論到分裂句的內在結構。本論文的主要貢獻是根據語言證據，將漢語的分裂句分為兩個不同的焦點結構。主語焦點(subject-focus)與附加語焦點(adjunct-focus)分為同一類，謂語焦點(predicate-focus)另為一類。
本論文主要討論四大主題：(一) 漢語分裂句的本質、(二)討論句末分詞「的」、(三)討論焦點標誌「是」、(四)討論分裂句句法結構。
首先，根據「是」與「的」的分佈將句型分為兩類，一類為「的」不可以省略的句型，此類被分析為關係子句；另一類為「的」可以省略的句型，此類被分析為漢語的分裂句。此外，分裂句的另一種形式，即[V的O]句型，也深入討論後歸納出四個此句型的傾向：(一)與過去時間的高相關、(二)動詞組結合性強、(三)賓語傾向無定、(四)賓語傾向句法上的單純。
主語焦點句與附加語焦點句根據八點語言證據與謂語焦點句區分開。八點證據包括「的」字的同現、焦點範域、[V的O]句型的代換、其他語言的證據支持等等。此外，討論四個主題：(一)謂語焦點句應與關係子句區分開，(二)謂語的類型影響著「的」字的同現，(三) 討論焦點標誌「是」與情態詞的語序關係，(四) 比較焦點標誌「是」與其他焦點標誌如「連」、「只」。
最後，跨語言的研究分裂句的句法結構。討論語言包括英語、匈牙利語、日語、泰語及漢語。本論文採用焦點詞組(FP)的分析。也分析討論了漢語的準分裂句型的語意及句法結構。

ABSTRACT

ON CHINESE FOCUS AND CLEFT CONSTRUCTIONS

Hui-chi Lee, Ph. D.
Graduate Institute of Linguistics
National Tsing Hua University, 2005
Professor Wei-tien Dylan Tsai, Advisor

There is plenty of previous research focusing on Chinese cleft construction. The previous researchers pay attention to different issues for analyzing Chinese cleft construction. Teng (1979), Li (1980), Tang (1983), Ross (1983), Huang (1988), Chiu (1993), Tsao (1994) make great effort to explore Chinese cleft sentences. However, among the previous research, the internal structure of the cleft construction is little explored. In this dissertation, depending on different types of focused elements, cleft sentences are divided into three focus patterns: subject focus, adjunct focus and predicate focus. One of the contributions of this dissertation is to distinguish the subject/adjunct-focus from the predicate-focus structures. The discrepancies between the subject/adjunct-focus sentences and the predicate-focus sentences are fairly obvious, but which has been inadequately discussed in the past, and has therefore led to great confusion.
The main discussions of this dissertation focus on four topics: (i) the nature of Chinese cleft construction, (ii) discussion of sentence final de, (iii) discussion of the focus marker shi, and (iv) the syntax of the cleft construction.
Firstly, the distribution of shi and de’s co-occurrence is displayed and two subgroups are divided according to the possibility of the omission of de. Pattern A is assumed to be sentences with headless relative clauses with the configuration ‘shi…*(de)’; Pattern B is assumed to be cleft sentences with the configuration ‘shi…(de)’. Moreover, the alternation of the cleft form [V de O] is discussed and four tendencies of the postverbal de are demonstrated. The properties of postverbal de are summed up as the following four tendencies: (1) highly frequent past time association; (2) VP compound tendency; (3) indefiniteness tendency of the object; and (4) simplicity tendency of the object.
The subject-focus and adjunct-focus structures are argued to be distinct from a predicate-focus structure by eight pieces of syntactic and semantic evidence. The eight pieces of evidence include the co-occurrence with de, various focus scope, the alternative of postverbal de, and support by cross-linguistic evidence, etc. Furthermore, the predicate-focus structure in the shi…de configuration is distinguished into sentences with headless relative clauses and sentences with focus are distinguished. In addition, it is assumed that predicate types (stative vs. dynamic) influence the grammaticality and the interpretations of predicate-focus sentences. Moreover, it is found that the word order of shi and modals varies depending on different types of modals. Lastly, shi is divided into two groups according to the focus scope. When shi occurs in the subject/adjunct-focus structures, the focus scope of shi is limited to the immediate constituent following shi. According to the constrained focus scope, the two focus structures are parallel to English cleft construction. When shi occurs in the predicate-focus structure, the focus scope of shi varies. Shi can focus on the verb, or the object, or the truth value of the proposition. The variety of focused constituents can be analogous to another focus marker, zhi ‘only’.
Finally, the syntactic structures of the cleft constructions are discussed cross-linguistically. The analysis of the specific maximal projection (FP) is employed.

References:
Akmajian, Adrian. 1970. “On Deriving Cleft Sentences from Pseudo-Cleft Sentences”. Linguistic Inquiry 1, 149-168.
American Heritage. 1994. The American Heritage Dictionary. New York: Dell Publishing Group.
Aoun, Joseph, and Yen-hui Audrey Li. 2003. The Diversity of Wh-Constructions. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Bach Emmon and Stanley Peters. 1968. “Pseudo-cleft Sentence”. ms. University of Texas at Austin.
Beninca, Paola. 2001. “The Position of Topic and Focus in the Left Periphery”. In Current Studies in Italian Syntax: Essays offered to Lorenzo Renzi, ed. by Cinque, Guglielmo and Salvi, Giampaolo. 39-64. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Ltd.
Bolinger, Dwight. 1954. “English Prosodic Stress and Spanish Sentence Order.” Hispania 37. 152-156.
Bolinger, Dwight. 1961. “Contrastive Accent and Contrastive Stress.” Language 37. 83-96.
Bonnet, Eulalia. 1990. Subjects in Catalan. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics (Papers on WH-movement) 13, 1-26.
Brody, Michael. 1990. “Remarks on the Order of Elements in Hungarian Focus Field”. In Istvan Kenesei (ed.), Approaches to Hungarian, Structures and Arguments. pp. 95-121. Jate: Szeged.
Brody, Michael. 1990. Some Remarks on the Focus Field in Hungarian. UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 2, 201-25.
Brody, Michael. 1995. Focus and Checking Theory. Approaches to Hungarian V: Levels and Structures, ed. by Istvan Kenesei, 29-44. Szeged: JATE.
Chafe, Wallace L. 1975. “Givenness, Contrastiveness, Definiteness, Subjects, Topics, and Point of view”. Subject and Topic ed. by Li, Charles N. New York: Academic Press.
Chao, Yuen-ren. 1968. A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Chen, Chung-yu. 1979. “On Predicative Complements”. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 7, 1: 44-64.
Cheng, Robert L. 1983.“Focus Devices in Chinese” in Studies in Chinese Syntax and Semantics Universe and Scope: Presupposition and Quantification in Chinese ed. by Tang, Cheng, Li. 127-226. Taipei: Student Book Co.
Chiu, Bonnie Hui-chun. 1993. The Inflectional Structure of Chinese. Ph. D. dissertation, University of California in Los Angeles.
Choe, Hyon Sook. 1992. “Focus and Topic Movement in Korean and Licensing”. In Katalin E. Kiss (ed.) Discourse Configurationality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chomsky, N. 1971. “Deep Structure, Surface Structure and Semantic Interpretation”. In Steinberg D. and Jakobovits L. (ed.) Semantics, An Interdisciplinary Reader in Philosophy. Linguistics and Psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Chomsky, N. 1976. “Conditions on Rules of Grammar”. Linguistic Analysis 2.4. Reprinted in N. Chomsky, Essays on Form and Interpretation, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1977.
Chomsky, N. 1977. “On Wh-movement”. Formal Syntax, ed. by P. W. Culicover, T. Wasow and A. Akmajian, 71-132. New York: Academic Press.
Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris Publications.
Chu, Chauncey, 1979. Yuyianxue lunji: lilun, yingyong ji hanyu yufa (Linguistic Collection: Theory, Application and Chinese Syntax). Taipei: Crane Press Co.
Chu, Chauncey. 1983. “Definiteness, Presupposition, Topic, and Focus in Mandarin Chinese” in Studies in Chinese Syntax and Semantics Universe and Scope: Presupposition and Quantification in Chinese ed. by Tang, Cheng, Li. 127-226. Taipei: Student Book Co.
Cinque, Guglielmo. 1993. “A Null Theory of Phrase and Compound Stress”. Linguistic Inquiry 24, 2: 239-298.
Collins Cobuild. 1991. English Language Dictionary. London: HarperCollins Publishers.
Cowie, A.P. 1989. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press.
Coyaud, Maurice. 1975. “Emphasis, relative nominalizations”. La Linguistique 11, 2, 39-59.
Crystal, David. 1997. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Delahunty, Gerald P. 1982. Topics in the Syntax and Semantics of English Cleft Sentences. Bloomington: Indianan University Linguistics Club.
Duan, De-sen. 1986. Shiyong gu hanyu xuci xiangshi (Practical explanations for the functional words in early Chinese). Shanxi: Shanxi People Press.
Emonds, Joseph E. 1976. A Transformational Approach to English Syntax. New York: Academic Press.
Farkas, Donka. 1986. “Focus in Hungarian”. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 4: 77-96.
Frascarelli, Mara. 2000. The Syntax-Phonology Interface in Focus and Topic Construction in Italian. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Gao, Qian. 1994. “Focus Criterion: Evidence from Chinese”. Proceedings of the Sixth North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics. University of Southern California.
Givon, T. 2001. Syntax Vol. II. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Gobbel, Edward. 1996. Focus Movement in Romanian. Tubingen: University of Tubingen, ms.
Gundel, K Jeanette. 1977. “Where do Cleft Sentences Come from?”. Language 53 (3), 543-559.
Gundel, K. Jeanette. 1999. “On Different Kinds of Focus”. in Peter Bosch and Rob van der Sandt (eds) Focus: Linguistic, Cognitive, and Computational Perspectives. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Guo, Xi-liang. 1997. “Guanyu xici “shi” shansheng liandai han laiyuan lunzheng de jidian renshi (Some notes on the source of the preposition ‘shi’)”. Hanyushi lunji. Beijing: Shangwu yinshu guan.
Halliday, Michael A. K. 1967. “Notes on Transitivity and Theme in English II”. Journal of Linguistics 3. 199-244.
Han, Zheng-rong. 1982. Gudai hanyu xuci shouce (The manual of early Chinese functional words). Jilin: Jilin People Press.
He, L.-S., Au, J.-H, Wang, K.-Z., Mai, M.-Q.. 1979. Wenyan xuci qianshi (The explanation on the classical Chinese functional words). Beijing: Beijing Press.
Hedberg, Nancy. 2000. “The Referential Status of Clefts”. Language 17 (4), 891-920.
Heggie, Lorie A. 1988. The Syntax of Copular Structure. Los Angeles: University of Southern California dissertation.
Heggie, Lorie. 1993. “The Range of Null Operators: Evidence from Clefting”. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 11 (1), 45-84.
Higgins, F. R. 1979. The Pseudo-Cleft Construction. New York: Garland Pub.
Hiraiwa, K. and S. Ishihara. 2002. “Missing Links: Cleft, Sluicing, and “no da” Construction in Japanese”. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 43: 35-54.
Hoji, H. 1990. “Sloppy Identity in Japanese” ms. University of Southern California.
Horn, L. 1969. “A Presuppositional Theory of Only and Even”. CLS 5, Chicago Linguistic Society.
Horvath, Julia. 1976. “Focus in Hungarian and the X’-Notation”. Linguistic Analysis 2.2: 175-197.
Horvath, Julia. 1985. Focus in the Theory of Grammar and the Syntax of Hungarian. Dordrecht: Foris Publications.
Hsieh, Chia-ling. 1998. Focusing Construction in Mandarin Chinese: Cleft and Pseudocleft Sentences. Master Thesis, National Tsing Hua University. Taiwan: Hsinchu.
Huang, C.-T. J. 1982. Logical Relations in Chinese and the Theory of Grammar, Ph D. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Huang, C.-T. J. 1988. “On ‘Be’ and ‘Have’ in Chinese (Shuo Shi he You)”. The Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philosophy Vol. LIX, Part I. Taipei: Academica Sinica.
Jackendoff, R. S. 1972. Semantic Interpretation in Generative Grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Jackendoff, R. S. 1977. X-bar Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Jones, Larry and Linda Jones. 1985. “Discourse Functions of Five English Sentence Types”. Word 36(1), 1-21.
Kader, Mashudi B. 1981. The Syntax of Malay Interrogatives. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Katamba, Francis. 1989. An Introduction to Phonology. London: Longman Inc..
Kiefer, F. 1967. On Emphasis and Word Order in Hungarian. Mouton, The Hague.
Kiss, Katalin E.. 1981. “Structural Relations in Hungarian, a “Free” Word Order Language”. Linguistic Inquiry 12: 185-213.
Kiss, Katalin E.. 1998. “Identificational Focus versus Information Focus”. Language 74 (2), 245-273.
Kiss, Katalin E.. 1999. “The English Cleft Construction as a Focus Phrase.” in Boundaries of Morphology and Syntax ed. by Mereu, Lunella, 217-229. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kuno, Susumu. 1972. “Functional Sentence Perspective: A Case Study from Japanese and English”. Linguistic Inquiry 3. 269-320.
Kuroda, S.-Y. 1999. Syubunaizaikan keisetsu. In S.-Y. Kuroda and Masaru Nakamuru (eds.) Kotoba no Katuto Syuuhen. Tokyo: Kurosio. pp. 27-104.
Lambrecht, Knud. 1981. Topic, Antitopic and Verb Agreement in Non-standard French. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V.
Lambrecht, Knud. 1995. Information Structure and Sentence Form: Topic, Focus, and the Mental Representations of Discourse Referents. New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Li, Ying Cherry. 1980. A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese Cleft and Pseudo-cleft Constructions. M.A. Thesis. Taipei: English Research Institute, Taiwan Normal University.
Lin, Jonah, T.-H..1997. “The quantificational force parameter and the determiner ge in Chinese”. in Proceedings of Interface Strategies in Chinese: Syntax and Semantics of Noun Phrases, LSA Linguistics Workshop. Cornell University.
Liu, Danqing, Xu Liejiong. 1998. “Focus, Topic and the Lian Construction”. Zhongguo Yuwen, 265: 243-252.
McCawley, J. 1988. The Syntactic Phenomena of English. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Muraki, Masa. 1970. “Presupposition and Pseudo-clefting” in Papers from the Sixth Regional Meeting Chicago Linguistic Society. pp. 390-399.
Murasugi, Keiko. 1991. Noun Phrases in Japanese and English: A Study in Syntax, Learnability, and Acquisition. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Connecticut.
Nakada, Seiichi. 1973. “Pseudo-clefts: What are They?” in Papers from the Ninth Regional Meeting Chicago Linguistic Society. pp. 428-441.
Ouhalla, Jamal. 1994. Focus in Standard Arabic. Linguistics in Potsdam 1, 65-92.
Paris, Marie-Claude. 1979. Nominalization in Mandarin Chinese. Paris: Department de Recherches Linguistiques, Universite Paris VII.
Paul, Waltraud & Whitman, John. 2001. “The Complement Structure of shi…de Clefts”. Paper presented in The 10th Annual Conference of International Association of Chinese Linguistics (IACL-10) & The 13th Northern American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-13), University of California in Irvine.
Prince, F Ellen. 1978. “A Comparison of Wh-Clefts and It-Clefts in Discourse”. Language 54 (4), 883-906.
Prince, F Ellen. 1981. “Topicalization, Focus Movement and Yiddish Movement: a Pragmatic Differentiation.” In Proceedings of the seventh Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Society. Berkeley, California. 249-264.
Reinhart, Tanya. 1997. “Interface Economy: Focus and Markedness”. OTS Working Papers in Linguistics. University of Utrecht.
Rizzi, Luigi. 1991. “Residual Verb Second and Wh-Criterion.” Technical Reports in Formal and Computational Linguistics No. 2. Genève: Faculté des Lettres, Université de Genève.
Rizzi, Luigi. 1997. “The Fine Structure of the Left Periphery”. In Liliane Haegeman (ed.), Elements of Grammar: Handbook in Generative Syntax. Dordrecht: Kluwer, pp. 281–337.
Rochemont, Michael. 1986. Focus in Generative Grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rochemont, Michael and Culicover, Peter. 1990. English Focus Construction and the Theory of Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ross, Claudia. 1983. “On the Functions of Mandarin de”. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 11 (2), 214-246.
Schachter, Paul and Otanes, FE T. 1972. Tagalog Reference Grammar. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Schacter, P. 1973. “Focus and Relativization”. Language 49, 1. 19-46.
Schmerling, Susan F. 1976. Aspects of English Sentences Stress. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Selkirk, Elisabeth O. 1984. Phonology and Syntax: the Relation between Sound and Structure. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Shi, Ding-xu. 1994. “The Nature of Chinese Emphatic Sentences”. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 3, 81-100.
Shyu, Shu-ing. 1995. The Syntax of Focus and Topic in Mandarin Chinese. PhD. dissertation. University of Southern California.
Simpson, A., Wu, Z.. 1999. “The Syntax and Interpretation of Sentence-Final DE”. In Proceedings of NACCL 10. 257-274.
Simpson, Andrew. 2001. “Focus, Presupposition and Light Predicate Raising in East and Southern Asia”. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 10, 2. 89-128.
Sun, Xi-xin. 1999. Jindai Hanyu Yuqici (Modern Mandarin Particles). Beijing: Yuwen Chubanshe.
Szabolcsi, A. 1980. “Az aktualis mondattagolas szemantikajahoz (On the Semantics of Functional Sentence Perspective)”. Nyelvtudomanyi Kozlemenyek 82: 59-82.
Takahashi, Daiko. 2004. ““Parasitic Gaps” in Japanese’: Another Case of the Absence of Island Effects”. Paper presented at the 2nd International TEAL Workshop. Taiwan: National Tsing Hua University.
Tang, Ting-chi. 1981. Linguistics and Language Teaching. Taipei: Student Book Co.
Tang, Ting-chi. 1983. “Focusing Constructions in Chinese: Cleft Sentences and Pseudo-cleft Sentences”. in Studies in Chinese Syntax and Semantics Universe and Scope: Presupposition and Quantification in Chinese ed. by Tang, Cheng, Li. 127-226. Taipei: Student Book Co.
Tang, Ting-chi. 1984. Essays in English Grammar and Rhetoric: From Traditional to Modern. Taipei: Student Books.
Tang, Ting-chi. 1992. Hanyu Cifa Jufa IV (Chinese Morphology and Syntax IV). Taipei: Student Book Co.
Teng, Shou-hsin. 1979. “Remarks on Cleft Sentences in Chinese”. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 7, 101-113.
The team of Early Chinese function words (ed.). 1980. Gudai hanyu xuci (On early Chinese functional words). Guangdong: Guangdong People Press.
Ting, Jen. 2003. “The Nature of the Particle Suo in Mandarin Chinese”. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 12, 2. 121-139.
Tsai, Dylan Wei-Tien. 2000. “The Hows of Why and the Whys of How”. Chinese Studies 36: 41-59.
Tsai, Dylan Wei-Tien. 2001. “On Object Specificity”. Papers on Predicative Constructions. ZAS Papers in Linguistics 22: 173-190.
Tsai, Dylan Wei-Tien. 2004. “On the Formal Semantics of Only and Even in Chinese”. Zhongguo Yuwen, 299: 99-111.
Tsao, Feng-fu. 1994. “Hanyu de fenlieju (Chinese cleft sentences): Zhuti yu jiaodian hexie gongchu de jiegou (The structure of topic and focus)”. Proceedings of the 3rd International Chinese languages and Teaching Conference. 93-106.
Tsimpli, Ianthi Maria. 1994. Focusing in Modern Greek. Discourse Configurational Languages, ed. By Katalin E. Kiss, 176-206. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vallduvi, Enric, and Maria Vilkuna. 1995. Focus and Contrast in Information Structure: Finnish and Catalan. Paper presented at the 1995 GLOW Workshop in Finno-Ugric Languages, Tromso.
Vallduvi, Enric. 1992. The Informational Component. New York: Garland.
Vilkuna, Maria. 1994. Discourse Configurationality in Finnish. Discourse Configurational Languages, ed. by Katalin E. Kiss, 244-268. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Williams, Edwin. 1980. “Predication”. Linguistic Inquiry 11, 203-238.
Wirth, Jessica R. 1978. “The Derivation of Cleft Sentences in English”. Glossa 12, 58-81.
Xu Jie, Li Y.-C. 1993. “The Focus and the Two Non-linear Grammatical Categories: Negation and Question”. Zhongguo Yuwen 2: 81-92.
Xu, Jie. 2001. Grammatical Principles and Grammatical Phenomena. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
Zhu, De-xi. 1961. “Shuo ‘DE’”. Zhongguo Yuwen December: 1-15.
Zhu, De-xi. 1978. ““DE” ji Jiegou han Panduan Ju (Shang)”. Zhongguo Yuwen 1: 23-27.
Zhu, De-xi. 1978. ““DE” ji Jiegou han Panduan Ju (Xia)”. Zhongguo Yuwen 2: 104-109.
Zubizarreta, Maria Luisa. 1994. “Word order, Prosody, and Focus”. ms. University of Southern California.