資料及數據為新興「數位世代」中創新之驅動力，而使其具舉足輕重的地位。在資料蒐集的大量提升之下，搭配如人工智慧、巨量資料、機器學習等技術的快速進展，公私部門都得以在應用技術與資料的情況下，獲取過往無法觀察到的資訊或成果。而上述技術的發展都需仰賴大量的資料方能得到最好的效果。由這些大量資料所驅動的創新，又稱為「資料驅動」的創新及數位轉型。為使現存資料能夠得到更好使用，近年各國管制者開始提倡「資料互通性」的概念。所謂「資料互通性」係指透過一些手段使原本資料庫中無法對外連通的資料能夠更有效地被觸及與應用。在這些手段當中，應用程式介面（API）便成為了廣受推崇及應用的解決方案。各國管制者透由不同管制手段，藉以提升應用程式介面的使用率，進而增進國家內資料的互通性。其中，歐盟的「功能性」、美國的「評選」以及愛沙尼亞「由上而下」的管制，分別對於應用程式介面之管制提出不同見解。本文首先將檢視應用程式介面的開發，並針對歐盟、美國與愛沙尼亞三位管制者對於應用程式介面的管制手段進行分析，最後提出一個國家層級的應用程式介面管制架構。

In recent years, data has become the “fuel” that drives innovation in the new digital era. Increases in data collection – combined with advancements in artificial intelligence, big data, and machine learning, among others – have allowed both the public and private sector to benefit from previously improbable insights. “Big data,” as the phrase itself suggests, requires vast amounts of data in order to improve either the accuracy or the precision of analytical results. The use of such data-driven innovations is applicable to virtually every field, e.g., finance, health, and transportation, or for various purpose, e.g., public policy choices, business decisions, and judicial recommendations. However, the benefits of data can only be realized if the exponentially growing volume of data generated on a daily basis can be accessed and utilized. One major issue surrounding access to data is the lack of accessibility among different data systems, which can lead to difficulties in the transfer and exchange of data. To address this issue, the concept of “data interoperability” has been introduced to facilitate the seamless transfer of data between systems. To enhance the efficiency of data systems’ interoperability, application programming interface (API) has emerged as an essential component in the digital era. To promote data interoperability through the broader adoption of API-like functions, regulators for the EU, the US and Estonia took different approaches to achieve the same goal, namely, the “functionality approach,” the “endorsement approach,” and the “top-down approach.” Lessons from these approaches have provided insights into the establishment of an API governance framework for regulators to consider depending on the current status of API adoption and development in different country and sector settings.

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32. Jonathan Band, The Global API Copyright Conflict, 31 HARV. J. J. & TECH. 615 (2018).
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37. Maddalena Favaretto et al., Big Data and Discrimination: Perils, Promises and Solutions. A Systematic Review, 6 J. BIG DATA 1 (2019).
38. Marsha Gold & Catherine McLaughlin, Assessing HITECH Implementation and Lessons: 5 Years Later, 94 MILBANK Q. 654 (2016).
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40. Miriam Reisman, EHRs: The Challenge of Making Electronic Data Usable and Interoperable, 42 PHARMACY & THERAPEUTICS 572 (2017).
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42. Oscar Borgogno & Giuseppe Colangelo, Data Sharing and Interoperability: Fostering Innovation and Competition Through APIs, 35(5) COMPUTER L. & SEC. REV. 1 (2019).
43. P.T.J. Wolters, The Security of Personal Data Under the GDPR: A Harmonized Duty or a Shared Responsibility?, INT’L DATA PRIVACY L. 165 (2017).
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45. Paul De Hert et al., The Right to Data Portability in the GDPR: Towards User-Centric Interoperability of Digital Services, 34 COMPUTER L. & SEC. REV. 193 (2018).
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50. Peterson K. Ozili, Impact of Digital Finance on Financial Inclusion and Stability, 18 BORSA ISTANBUL REV. 329 (2018).
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Legislation
1. 21st Century Cures Act, Pub. L. No. 114-255 (2016).
2. 21st Century Cures Act: Interoperability, Information Blocking, and the ONC Health IT Certification Program, 84 Fed. Reg. 7424 (Mar. 4, 2019).
3. 21st Century Cures Act: Interoperability, Information Blocking, and the ONC Health IT Certification Program, 85 Fed. Reg. 25642 (May 1, 2020).
4. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, Pub. L. No. 111-5 (2009).
5. Directive (EU) 2015/2366 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on Payment Services in the Internal Market, Amending Directives 2002/65/EC, 2009/110/EC and 2013/36/EU and Regulation (EU) No 1093/2010, and Repealing Directive 2007/64/EC, 2015 O.J. (L 377) 35.
6. Directive (EU) 2019/1024 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on Open Data and the Re-use of Public Sector Information, 2019 O.J. (L 172) 26.
7. Exec. Order No. 13335, 3 C.F.R. 13335 (2004).
8. Exec. Order No. 13571, 3 C.F.R. 13571 (2011).
9. Exec. Order No. 13576, 3 C.F.R. 13576 (2011).
10. Federal Register Vol.75, No.144 (2010).
11. Final Report Draft Technical Standards on Strong Customer Authentication and Common and Secure Communication under Article 98 of Directive 2015/2366 (PSD2), EBA/RTS/2017/02.
12. Foundation for Evidence-Based Policymaking Act of 2018, Pub. L. No. 114-435, 132 Stat. 5529 (2019).
13. Gong Tong Sing Ying Yong Cheng Shih Jieh Mian Guei Fan (共通性應用程式介面規範) [Regulation for a Common Application Programming Interface], NAT’L DEV. COUNCIL (Taiwan) https://theme.ndc.gov.tw/lawout/Download.ashx?FileID=1438
14. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-191, 100 Stat. 2548 (1996).
15. HIPAA Privacy Rules, US DEP’T OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERV. (HHS), https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ocr/privacy/hipaa/administrative/combined/hipaa-simplification-201303.pdf.
16. Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-10 (2015).
17. Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of such Data, and Repealing Directive 95/46/EC, 2016 O.J. (L 119) 1.

Court Cases
1. Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc., 593 U.S. ___ (2021).
2. Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google LLC, 886 F.3d 1179 (Fed. Cir. 2018).

Official Documents, Government Reports, Government-Commissioned Reports, and Press Release
1. § 170.215(a)(1) | HL7 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources Specification (FHIR®) Release 4, Version 4.0.1: R4, October 30, 2019, including Technical Correction #1, November 1, 2019, HEALTHIT, https://www.healthit.gov/isa/svap-standard/170215a1.
2. §170.315(g)(10) Standardized API for Patient and Population Services, HEALTHIT, https://www.healthit.gov/test-method/standardized-api-patient-and-population-services#ccg.
3. 2015 Report to Congress on Health Information Blocking, HEALTHIT.GOV (April 2015), https://www.healthit.gov/sites/default/files/reports/info_blocking_040915.pdf.
4. Antony J. Blinken, The United States Officially Rejoins the Paris Agreement, US DEP’T OF STATE (Feb. 19, 2021), https://www.state.gov/the-united-states-officially-rejoins-the-paris-agreement/.
5. Connecting Health and Care for the Nation: A Shared Nationwide Interoperability Roadmap Ver 1.0, HEALTHIT, https://www.healthit.gov/sites/default/files/hie-interoperability/Roadmap-Executive%20Summary-100115-4pm.pdf.
6. Cures Act Final Rule: United States Core Data for Interoperability, HEALTHIT, https://www.healthit.gov/cures/sites/default/files/cures/2020-03/USCDI.pdf.
7. Digital Government: Building a 21st Century Platform to Better Serve the American People, OBAMA WHITE HOUSE, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/egov/digital-government/digital-government.html.
8. Eligible Professional Medicaid EHR Incentive Program Stage 3 Objectives and Measures, CMS (Aug. 2017), https://www.cms.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Legislation/EHRIncentivePrograms/Downloads/TableofContents_EP_Medicaid_Stage3.pdf.
9. Eligible Professional’s Guide to Stage 2 of the EHR Incentive Programs, CMS (Sept. 2013), https://www.cms.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Legislation/EHRIncentivePrograms/Downloads/Stage2_Guide_EPs_9_23_13.pdf.
10. EOSC Interoperability Framework, PUBL’N OFF. OF THE EUR. UNION (Feb. 5, 2021), https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/d787ea54-6a87-11eb-aeb5-01aa75ed71a1.
11. Eur. Comm’n, A Digital Agenda for Europe, COM (2010) 245 final (May 19, 2010).
12. Eur. Comm’n, A European Strategy for Data, COM(2020) 66 final
13. Eur. Comm’n, Building a European Data Economy, COM (2017) 9 final (Jan. 10, 2017).
14. Eur. Comm’n, Commission Presents Renewable Energy Directive Revision, EUR’ COMM’N (Jul. 14, 2021), https://ec.europa.eu/info/news/commission-presents-renewable-energy-directive-revision-2021-jul-14_en.
15. Eur. Comm’n, EU eGovernment Action Plan 2016-2020: Accelerating the Digital Transformation of Government, COM (2016) 179 final (Apr. 19, 2016).
16. Eur. Comm’n, New European Interoperability Framework: Promoting Seamless Services and Data Flows for European Public Administrations (2017), https://ec.europa.eu/isa2/sites/default/files/eif_brochure_final.pdf.
17. Eur. Comm’n, Towards a Thriving Data-driven Economy, COM (2014) 442 final (Jul. 2, 2014).
18. Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition), W3C, https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/.
19. Federal Data Strategy 2020 Action Plan, DATA.GOV, https://strategy.data.gov/assets/docs/2020-federal-data-strategy-action-plan.pdf.
20. Federal Health IT Strategic Plan 2015-2020, HEALTHIT, https://www.healthit.gov/sites/default/files/9-5-federalhealthitstratplanfinal_0.pdf.
21. FTC Alleges Facebook Resorted to Illegal Buy-or-Bury Scheme to Crush Competition After String of Failed Attempts to Innovate, FTC (Aug. 19, 2021), https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2021/08/ftc-alleges-facebook-resorted-illegal-buy-or-bury-scheme-crush.
22. FTC Sues Facebook for Illegal Monopolization, FED. TRADE COMM’N (Dec. 9, 2020), https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2020/12/ftc-sues-facebook-illegal-monopolization.
23. Ghana’s Data for Sustainable Development Roadmap Forum, STATSGAHANA.GOV, https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/SDGs/Forum%20report%20final.pdf.
24. HHS Releases Project US@ Draft Technical Specification Version 1.0 for Comment, HHS (Jun. 6, 2021), https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2021/06/16/hhs-releases-project-us-draft-technical-specification-for-comment.html.
25. Kai Fang Zih Liao Ying Yong Cheng Shih Jieh Jieh (Api) Shen Ching Ji Shih Yong Shuo Ming (開放資料應用程式介接(API)申請及使用說明) [Guideline for Open Government API Adoption and Authorization], NAT’L COMMC’N COMM’N https://www.ncc.gov.tw/chinese/news.aspx?site_content_sn=3900&is_history=0.
26. Lorenzino Vaccari et al., Application Programming Interfaces in Governments: Why, What and How, EUR’ COMM’N (2020).
27. ONC Interim Final Rule: Information Blocking and ONC Health IT Certification Program, HEALTHIT, https://www.healthit.gov/cures/sites/default/files/cures/2020-10/IFC_FactSheet_Certification.pdf
28. ONC, 2015 Interoperability Standards Advisory, HEALTHIT, https://www.healthit.gov/sites/default/files/2015interoperabilitystandardsadvisory01232015final_for_public_comment.pdf.
29. Open Government Directive, OBAMA WHITE HOUSE (Dec. 8, 2009), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/open/documents/open-government-directive.
30. Public Health Agency Readiness for Promoting Interoperability Programs, 2019 Onward, CDC, https://www.cdc.gov/ehrmeaningfuluse/docs/Promoting_Interoperability_Public_Health_Task_Force_Guidance-Version-3.9_508.pdf
31. Summary of Legislation and Regulations Included in the Annual Energy Outlook 2021, US EIA (Feb. 2021), https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/assumptions/pdf/summary.pdf.
32. Transparency and Open Government, OBAMA WHITE HOUSE (Jan. 21, 2009), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/transparency-and-open-government.

Public/Private Institutional Reports, Conference Papers, Presentations, and Working Papers
1. Alessio Botta, PSD2: Taking Advantage of Open-banking Disruption, MCKINSEY & COMPANY (Jan. 24, 2018), https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/financial-services/our-insights/psd2-taking-advantage-of-open-banking-disruption.
2. Alp Erkmen & Mehmet Nafiz Aydin, A Comparison Between Right to Data Portability and United Kingdom’s Midata Initiative, 5th International Management Information Systems Conference (Oct. 24-26, 2018).
3. Antoinette Price, The Artificial Intelligence Technologies Behind Smart Manufacturing, IEC E-TECH (Nov. 15, 2019), https://etech.iec.ch/issue/2019-06/the-artificial-intelligence-technologies-behind-smart-manufacturing.
4. API Monetization – Understanding Your Business Model Options, (IBM Cloud Though Leadership White Paper), at 4, https://www.ibm.com/downloads/cas/L5Q82XR0.
5. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, Report on Open Banking and Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) (BIS, Nov. 2019), https://www.bis.org/bcbs/publ/d486.pdf.
6. Bennett Cyphers & Cory Doctorow, Privacy Without Monopoly: Data Protection and Interoperability, EFF (2021), https://www.eff.org/files/2021/06/14/privacy_without_monopoly.pdf.
7. Big Data and Transport: Understanding and Assessing Options, INT’L TRANSPORT FORUM, https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/15cpb_bigdata_0.pdf.0
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9. David Reinsel et al., The Digitization of the World: From Edge to Core, 3 (IDC White Paper Doc# US44413318, 2018).
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