生物病變礦化組織之多尺度結構與機械性質研究

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研究生：	法比奧 Fabio Bohns
論文名稱：	生物病變礦化組織之多尺度結構與機械性質研究 MULTI-SCALE STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON DISEASED MINERALISED TISSUES
指導教授：	Riaz, Akhtar Riaz, Akhtar 陳柏宇 Chen, Po-Yu
口試委員:	Wang, Yinang Wang, Yinang Wilkinson, David Wilkinson, David Chen, Yuhang Chen, Yuhang Chang, Shu-Wei Chang, Shu-Wei Wang, Tzu-Wei Wang, Tzu-Wei
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	教務處 - 跨院國際博士班學位學程 International Intercollegiate PhD Program
論文出版年：	2024
畢業學年度：	112
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	217
中文關鍵詞：	骨骼結構、生物力學、骨骼疾病
外文關鍵詞：	Bone Structure, Biomechanics, Bone Disease
相關次數：	點閱：2 下載：0
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骨骼是一種多功能的物質，可保護我們的器官、維持體重及製造骨骼細胞。骨質疏鬆症和成骨不全症分別是慢性和遺傳性骨骼疾病，它們都有骨頭脆弱的表徵。這是一個重要的討論議題，因為它會造成所有年齡層的經濟負擔，尤其是老年人。為了將骨頭疾病的負面後果減至最低，應遵循一系列的醫療建議；這些建議包括攝取抗骨吸收藥物(如阿崙膦酸鈉)，並維持積極健康的生活作息。儘管對骨質疏鬆症和成骨不全症的認識有所進步，但仍有一些潛在一些基本機制及其與骨骼形態測量（如礦物密度和骨量）的關係仍是未解之迷。為了進一步了解骨骼疾病，動物模型已被提出。
斑馬魚是一種小型的脊椎魚，其骨骼與人類的骨骼有高度的相似性。這些魚能夠再生他們身體的一部分，例如尾鰭，有助於動物研究中的 3Rs (Reduction, Replacement and Refinement)。例如減少研究中嚙齒動物的數量。正因如此，斑馬魚已被用於臨床骨質狀況（如糖皮質激素誘發的骨質疏鬆症）的惡化。小鼠成骨不全症是一種自發突變的輕度至嚴重的成骨不全症。
這些小鼠表現出骨骼畸形和骨頭變脆，已被用來評估骨膠原缺陷對骨特性的影響。在本研究中，我們使用斑馬魚和小鼠模型進行了一系列的結構和機械分析，以建立骨骼疾病所造成的不良機械特性與用於測量骨質的參數之間的關係。我們利用斑馬魚再生截肢尾鰭的潛力來探討骨質疏鬆症和阿崙膦酸鈉對鰭骨稜線礦化的影響。患病的魚骨形成速度比對照組緩慢；使用阿崙膦酸鈉治療的魚骨形成速度則比兩組都快。同樣地，骨質疏鬆的魚體內的彈性模數和硬度也降低了。分別為 (5.60 ± 5.04 GPa 及 0.12 ± 0.17 GPa,)，而阿崙膦酸鈉則可使其恢復至截骨前的狀態分別為(8.68 ± 8.74 GPa 及 0.34 ± 0.47 GPa)。潑尼松龍和阿崙膦酸鈉的作用對斑馬魚脊椎骨的影響因骨礦物密度的降低和硬度恢復至控制水平。在成骨不全症模型中，α2 鏈的錯誤折疊（同基因）會產生生物力學性能降低的骨骼年齡。
斑馬魚顯示，骨質疏鬆症會因礦物質形成受阻（鰭骨條）、硬度降低（鰭骨條和脊椎骨）和骨礦密度降低 (脊椎骨）。在小鼠模型中，生物力學特性會隨著年齡的增長而增加，這證明了低彈性模量和硬度以及年輕時的高蠕變率可能在在成骨不全症表型中扮演關鍵角色。本論文中應用的技術有可能在未來應用在人類身上，以更好地了解骨質疏鬆症和成骨不全症。

Bone is a multi-functional material that protect our organs, sustain our body weight and produce skeletal cells. Osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta are chronic and genetic bone diseases, respectively, that share a phenotype of bone fragility. Bone fracture is an important subject for discussion due to the economic burden that it causes across all ages, but especially in the elderly. In order to minimise the negative consequences of bone diseases, a series of medical recommendations should be followed; they involve the intake of anti-resorptive drugs (i.e., alendronate) and maintaining an active and healthy routine. Despite the advances in the understanding of osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta, some underlying mechanisms of bone fragility and its relationship with bone morphometrics (e.g., mineral density and bone volume), remain unanswered. To further the knowledge on bone diseases, animal models have been proposed.
Zebrafish are small teleost fish that the bones have shown high conservation with those of human. These fish are able to regenerate parts of their body, like caudal fin, contributing to the 3Rs (Reduction, Replacement and Refinement) in animal research by, for example, reducing the number of rodents in research. Because of this, zebrafish have been used for the exacerbation of clinical bone conditions such as glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Osteogenesis imperfecta murine is a spontaneous mutation of mild-to-severe cases of osteogenesis imperfecta. These mice show deformed skeleton and brittle bones. These mice have been used to evaluate effects of collagen defects in bone properties. In this study, a series of structural and mechanical analysis were used in zebrafish and murine models to establish a relationship between poor mechanical properties caused by bone diseases and parameters used to measure bone quality.
The potential of zebrafish to regenerate their amputated caudal fins was used to explore the effects of osteoporosis and alendronate on the mineralisation of the fin bony rays. Diseased fish displayed a slower bone formation than controls; fish treated with alendronate showed increased bone formation than both groups. Similarly, the reduced elastic modulus and hardness levels were decreased in osteoporotic bones (5.60 ± 5.04 GPa and 0.12 ± 0.17 GPa, respectively), whereas alendronate recovered them to the pre-amputation condition (8.68 ± 8.74 GPa and 0.34 ± 0.47 GPa, respectively). Prednisolone and alendronate effects on zebrafish vertebrae were exacerbated by the reduction of the bone-mineral density and recuperation of hardness to controls levels. In the osteogenesis imperfecta model, the misfolding of α2 chains (homozygous) produced bones with decreased biomechanics at early age.
Zebrafish showed that osteoporosis is exacerbated by hampered mineral formation (fin bony rays), reduced hardness (fin bony rays and vertebrae) and reduction of bone-mineral density (vertebrae). In murine models, the biomechanical properties increased with age, demonstrating that low elastic modulus and hardness, and high creep rates at young ages may play key role in osteogenesis imperfecta phenotype. The techniques applied in this thesis have potential, in the future, to be applied in humans to better understand osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta.

List of abbreviation    xv
   Chapter 1: Background    1
1.    Motivation    2
2.    Aims and Objectives    3
References    5
   Chapter 2: Literature Review    8
1.    Ageing    9
1.1.    Ageing definition and prospects    9
1.2.    Ageing burden    12
2.    Musculoskeletal system    12
2.1.    Bone    13
2.2.    Collagen    14
2.3.    Types of ossification    16
2.4.    Types of bones    16
2.5.    Bone cells    18
2.6.    Bone modelling    20
2.7.    Bone remodelling    21
3.    Bone biomechanics    22
3.1.    Macro-mechanical    24
3.2.    Nano-mechanical    27
3.3.    Mechanical properties and constitutive modelling    31
4.    Bone diseases    32
4.1.    Osteoporosis    32
4.2.    Osteogenesis imperfecta    37
5.    Bone diseases management    40
5.1.    Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis treatment    40
5.2.    Osteogenesis imperfecta treatment    41
5.3.    Bisphosphonates    43
6.    Animal models for bone diseases    45
6.1.    Zebrafish    46
6.2.    Rodents    53
7.    Summary    57
References    58
   Chapter 3: Methods    81
1.    Animal maintenance    82
1.1.    Pilot studies    82
1.2.    Zebrafish maintenance in caudal fin study    83
1.3.    Zebrafish maintenance vertebrae study    84
1.4.    Murine model maintenance    86
2.    Fluorescence microscopy    88
2.1.    GIOP protocol zebrafish lepidotrichia    91
3.    Scanning electron microscopy    96
3.1.    SEM of zebrafish lepidotrichia    98
3.2.    SEM of zebrafish vertebrae    99
4.    Raman spectroscopy    100
4.1.    Raman spectroscopy of zebrafish caudal fin    100
5.    Atomic force microscopy    101
5.1.    Surface profile and roughness of zebrafish lepidotrichia    101
6.    Micro-Computed tomography    102
6.1.    BMD of zebrafish vertebrae (CV1 and CV2)    105
7.    Nanoindentation    106
7.1.    Nanoindentation of zebrafish lepidotrichia    111
7.2.    Nanoindentation of zebrafish vertebrae    112
7.3.    Nanoindentation murine model    112
8.    Statistical analyses    115
8.1.    Zebrafish caudal fin study    115
8.2.    Zebrafish vertebrae study    116
8.3.    Murine models study    116
9.    Summary    117
References    118
   Chapter 4: Zebrafish caudal fin as a model for GIOP    123
1.    Abstract    124
2.    Introduction    125
2.1.    Zebrafish caudal fin model in bone diseases    125
2.2.    Rationale for targeting zebrafish caudal fin as our first study in bone diseases    125
3.    Results    126
3.1.    Drug effects on mineralisation    126
3.2.    Ultrastructural and compositional analysis of zebrafish bone    129
3.3.    Calcium-phosphate profile    131
3.4.    Surface topography and roughness    133
3.5.    Mechanical properties    135
4.    Discussion    137
5.    Conclusions    143
References    144
   Chapter 5: Nanoindentation as an alternative method to assess diseased bones in zebrafish    150
1.    Abstract    151
2.    Introduction    152
2.1.    Potential of zebrafish vertebrae to model bone diseases    152
3.    Results    153
3.1.    Bone morphometry and mineral density    153
3.2.    Bone morphology    156
3.3.    Nano-mechanical evaluation    158
4.    Discussion    159
5.    Limitations    164
6.    Conclusions    164
References    165
   Chapter 6: Osteogenesis imperfecta murine model for severe osteogenesis imperfecta    172
1.    Abstract    173
2.    Introduction    174
2.1.    Murine models for bone diseases    174
2.2.    Rationale for using a murine model for bone diseases    174
2.3.    Defining the gap in the literature    175
3.    Results    176
4.    Discussion    183
5.    Limitations    186
6.    Conclusion    186
References    187
   Chapter 7: Discussion    192
1.    Effects of dehydration in nanoindentation    193
2.    Zebrafish models for human diseases    194
2.1.    Zebrafish lepidotrichia    194
2.2.    Zebrafish vertebrae    197
3.    Murine models for human diseases    199
4.    Translation to human research    201
References    204
   Chapter 8: Conclusions and future work    211
1.    Background    212
2.    Summary of the key findings of the research work    212
3.    Overall summary    213
4.    Future work    214
4.1.    Nanomechanical mapping matching bone composition    214
4.2.    Creep analysis in zebrafish model    215
4.3.    Nanomechanical mapping with high-speed NI    215
4.4.    Effects of prolonged hold time periods in oim model    215
4.5.    Murine model and medication    216
References    217


                                

Chapter 1

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Chapter 2

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Mahamid, J., Sharir, A., Addadi, L., Weiner, S., 2008. Amorphous calcium phosphate is a major component of the forming fin bones of zebrafish: Indications for an amorphous precursor phase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 105, 12748–12753.
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Chapter 6

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Sillence, D.O., Senn, A., Danks, D.M., 1979. Genetic heterogeneity in osteogenesis imperfecta. Journal of Medical Genetics 16, 101–116.
Skarnes, W.C., Rosen, B., West, A.P., Koutsourakis, M., Bushell, W., Iyer, V., Mujica, A.O., Thomas, M., Harrow, J., Cox, T., Jackson, D., Severin, J., Biggs, P., Fu, J., Nefedov, M., de Jong, P.J., Stewart, A.F., Bradley, A., 2011. A conditional knockout resource for the genome-wide study of mouse gene function. Nature 474, 337–342.
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Vanleene, M., Porter, A., Guillot, P.-V., Boyde, A., Oyen, M., Shefelbine, S., 2012. Ultra-structural defects cause low bone matrix stiffness despite high mineralization in osteogenesis imperfecta mice. Bone 50, 1317–1323.
Wu, Z., Baker, T.A., Ovaert, T.C., Niebur, G.L., 2011. The effect of holding time on nanoindentation measurements of creep in bone. Journal of Biomechanics 44, 1066–1072.
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Chapter 7

Barrett, R., Chappell, C., Quick, M., Fleming, A., 2006. A rapid, high content, in vivo model of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Biotechnol. J. 1, 651–655.
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Chang, Z., Chen, P.-Y., Chuang, Y.-J., Akhtar, R., 2018. Zebrafish as a model to study bone maturation: Nanoscale structural and mechanical characterization of age-related changes in the zebrafish vertebral column. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 84, 54–63.
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Cho, T.-J., Choi, I.H., Chung, C.Y., Yoo, W.J., Lee, K.S., Lee, D.Y., 2007. Interlocking Telescopic Rod for Patients with Osteogenesis Imperfecta: The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery 89, 1028–1035.
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Folkestad, L., Hald, J.D., Ersbøll, A.K., Gram, J., Hermann, A.P., Langdahl, B., Abrahamsen, B., Brixen, K., 2017. Fracture Rates and Fracture Sites in Patients with Osteogenesis Imperfecta: A Nationwide Register-Based Cohort Study: fracture rates in osteogenesis imperfecta. J Bone Miner Res 32, 125–134.
Forlino, A., Marini, J.C., 2016. Osteogenesis imperfecta. The Lancet 387, 1657–1671.
Genest, F., Claußen, L., Rak, D., Seefried, L., 2021. Bone mineral density and fracture risk in adult patients with hypophosphatasia. Osteoporos Int 32, 377–385.
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He, H., Wang, C., Tang, Q., Yang, F., Xu, Y., 2018. Possible mechanisms of prednisolone-induced osteoporosis in zebrafish larva. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 101, 981–987.
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Labonte, D., Lenz, A.-K., Oyen, M.L., 2017. On the relationship between indentation hardness and modulus, and the damage resistance of biological materials. Acta Biomaterialia 57, 373–383.
Lee K. J., Lisa Rambault, George Bou-Gharios, Peter D. Clegg, Riaz Akhtar, Gabriela Czanner, Rob van‘t Hof, Elizabeth G. Canty-Laird; 2022 Collagen (I) homotrimer potentiates the osteogenesis imperfecta (oim) mutant allele and reduces survival in male mice. Dis Model Mech 1 September; 15 (9): dmm049428.
Lin, W.-Y., Dharini, K., Peng, C.-H., Lin, C.-Y., Yeh, K.-T., Lee, W.-C., Lin, M.-D., 2022. Zebrafish models for glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Tzu Chi Med J 34, 373.
Lin, Y., Xiang, X., Chen, T., Gao, C., Fu, H., Wang, L., Deng, L., Zeng, L., Zhang, J., 2019. In vivo monitoring and high-resolution characterizing of the prednisolone-induced osteoporotic process on adult zebrafish by optical coherence tomography. Biomedical Optics Express 10, 1184.
Loundagin, L.L., Haider, I.T., Cooper, D.M.L., Edwards, W.B., 2020. Association between intracortical microarchitecture and the compressive fatigue life of human bone: A pilot study. Bone Reports 12, 100254.
Ma, X., Xu, Z., Ding, S., Yi, G., Wang, Q., 2017. Alendronate promotes osteoblast differentiation and bone formation in ovariectomy‑induced osteoporosis through interferon‑β/signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 pathway. Exp Ther Med.
Mahamid, J., Addadi, L., Weiner, S., 2011. Crystallization Pathways in Bone. Cells Tissues Organs 194, 92–97.
Mahamid, J., Aichmayer, B., Shimoni, E., Ziblat, R., Li, C., Siegel, S., Paris, O., Fratzl, P., Weiner, S., Addadi, L., 2010. Mapping amorphous calcium phosphate transformation into crystalline mineral from the cell to the bone in zebrafish fin rays. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 6316–6321.
Mahamid, J., Sharir, A., Addadi, L., Weiner, S., 2008. Amorphous calcium phosphate is a major component of the forming fin bones of zebrafish: Indications for an amorphous precursor phase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, 12748–12753.
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Monma, Y., Shimada, Y., Nakayama, H., Zang, L., Nishimura, N., Tanaka, T., 2019. Aging-associated microstructural deterioration of vertebra in zebrafish. Bone Reports 11, 100215.
Novitskaya, E., Zin, C., Chang, N., Cory, E., Chen, P., D’Lima, D., Sah, R.L., McKittrick, J., 2014. Creep of trabecular bone from the human proximal tibia. Materials Science and Engineering: C 40, 219–227.
Oyen, M.L., 2015. Nanoindentation of hydrated materials and tissues. Curr Opi Solid State Mat Sci 19, 317–323.
Pasqualetti, S., Congiu, T., Banfi, G., Mariotti, M., 2015. Alendronate rescued osteoporotic phenotype in a model of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in adult zebrafish scale. Int. J. Exp. Path. 96, 11–20.
Pollintine, P., Luo, J., Offa-Jones, B., Dolan, P., Adams, M.A., 2009. Bone creep can cause progressive vertebral deformity. Bone 45, 466–472.
Puri, S., Aegerter-Wilmsen, T., Jaźwińska, A., Aegerter, C.M., 2018. In vivo quantification of mechanical properties of caudal fins in adult zebrafish. The Journal of Experimental Biology 221, jeb171777.
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Shapiro, J.R., McBride, D.J., Fedarko, N.S., 1995. OIM and Related Animal Models of Osteogenesis Imperfecta. Connective Tissue Research 31, 265–268.
Sillence, D.O., Senn, A., Danks, D.M., 1979. Genetic heterogeneity in osteogenesis imperfecta. Journal of Medical Genetics 16, 101–116.
Skarnes, W.C., Rosen, B., West, A.P., Koutsourakis, M., Bushell, W., Iyer, V., Mujica, A.O., Thomas, M., Harrow, J., Cox, T., Jackson, D., Severin, J., Biggs, P., Fu, J., Nefedov, M., de Jong, P.J., Stewart, A.F., Bradley, A., 2011. A conditional knockout resource for the genome-wide study of mouse gene function. Nature 474, 337–342.
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Vanleene, M., Porter, A., Guillot, P.-V., Boyde, A., Oyen, M., Shefelbine, S., 2012. Ultra-structural defects cause low bone matrix stiffness despite high mineralization in osteogenesis imperfecta mice. Bone 50, 1317–1323.
Weigele, J., Franz-Odendaal, T.A., 2016. Functional bone histology of zebrafish reveals two types of endochondral ossification, different types of osteoblast clusters and a new bone type. J. Anat. 229, 92–103.
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Zhang, Y., Cui, F.Z., Wang, X.M., Feng, Q.L., Zhu, X.D., 2002. Mechanical properties of skeletal bone in gene-mutated stöpseldtl28d and wild-type zebrafish (Danio rerio) measured by atomic force microscopy-based nanoindentation. Bone 30, 541–546.
Zimmermann, E.A., Riedel, C., Schmidt, F.N., Stockhausen, K.E., Chushkin, Y., Schaible, E., Gludovatz, B., Vettorazzi, E., Zontone, F., Püschel, K., Amling, M., Ritchie, R.O., Busse, B., 2019. Mechanical Competence and Bone Quality Develop During Skeletal Growth. J Bone Miner Res 34, 1461–1472.

Chapter 8

Cardeira, J., Gavaia, P.J., Fernández, I., Cengiz, I.F., Moreira-Silva, J., Oliveira, J.M., Reis, R.L., Cancela, M.L., Laizé, V., 2016. Quantitative assessment of the regenerative and mineralogenic performances of the zebrafish caudal fin. Sci Rep 6, 39191.
Carriero, A., Enderli, T., Burtch, S., Templet, J., 2016. Animal models of osteogenesis imperfecta: applications in clinical research. ORR Volume 8, 41–55.
Oliver, W.C., Pharr, G.M., 2004. Measurement of hardness and elastic modulus by instrumented indentation: Advances in understanding and refinements to methodology. J. Mater. Res. 19, 3–20.
Oliver, W.C., Pharr, G.M., 1992. An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments. J. Mater. Res. 7, 1564–1583.
Pollintine, P., Luo, J., Offa-Jones, B., Dolan, P., Adams, M.A., 2009. Bone creep can cause progressive vertebral deformity. Bone 45, 466–472.
Skarnes, W.C., Rosen, B., West, A.P., Koutsourakis, M., Bushell, W., Iyer, V., Mujica, A.O., Thomas, M., Harrow, J., Cox, T., Jackson, D., Severin, J., Biggs, P., Fu, J., Nefedov, M., de Jong, P.J., Stewart, A.F., Bradley, A., 2011. A conditional knockout resource for the genome-wide study of mouse gene function. Nature 474, 337–342.
Weigele, J., Franz-Odendaal, T.A., 2016. Functional bone histology of zebrafish reveals two types of endochondral ossification, different types of osteoblast clusters and a new bone type. J. Anat. 229, 92–103.

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