N/A

Nociception is the neural process of encoding noxious stimuli and is typically accompanied by a reflex withdrawal response away from the potentially injurious stimulus. Different from nociception, pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. All animals with a nervous system are considered capable of nociception in order to survive; however, scientific evidence is needed to confirm that pain occurs in an animal. Studies on nociception and pain in cephalopods have so far focused on octopus and squid, with currently little investigations on cuttlefish. Yet, these are an important species both in scientific and commercial use. Therefore, the present study demonstrated that a standard pain stimulus, acetic acid, induced grooming behaviour directed towards the injection site in cuttlefish and that the injection of lidocaine reduces grooming behaviours in acetic-acid-injected cuttlefish. Furthermore, after training, cuttlefish treated with acetic acid and lidocaine for pain relief exhibited a shift in preference for prey quantity, implying the potential for relief learning, one of the criteria in establishing that animals experience pain. The effects of acetic acid on additional cuttlefish behaviours, such as hovering, swimming, jet-ting, and changes in body patterns, have also been investigated. In addition to traditional manual scoring methods, HLS transformation was employed, attempting to offer a more precise and scientific way to quantify cuttlefish body pattern. Although these behaviours cannot yet be reliably used as indicators of pain in cuttlefish, the chromatic analysis method employed here proved effective. These results demonstrate that grooming behaviour is a reliable indicator of responses to acetic acid injection into the arm. Furthermore, the observation of relief learning strengthens the possibility that cephalopods possess not just nociception but also the capacity for pain.

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