本研究試圖探討不同求偶思維的情境，是否會對消費者的品牌偏好產生影響。以隱喻廣告與產品稀少性做為干擾變數，探討此二變數是否會對消費者之品牌偏好產生干擾作用。並根據文獻探討所推論的構面與假說進行變項之間的差異研究，以心理學實驗法進行 2（求偶思維：是 vs.否）× 2（隱喻廣告：明喻 vs.暗喻）× 2（產品稀少性：供給性稀少 vs.需求性稀少)的受試者間實驗設計。本研究結果發現：(1) 使用明喻廣告時，非求偶思維的消費者會比求偶思維的消費者產生較高的品牌偏好；使用暗喻廣告時，求偶思維並不會對品牌偏好產生顯著差異；(2) 當產品為供給性稀少時，求偶思維的消費者會比非求偶思維的消費者產生較高的品牌偏好；當產品為需求性稀少時，求偶思維並不會對品牌偏好產生顯著差異；(3) 使用明喻廣告且產品為供給性稀少時，求偶思維並不會對品牌偏好產生顯著差異；使用明喻廣告且產品為需求性稀少時，非求偶思維會比求偶思維的消費者產生較高的品牌偏好；使用暗喻廣告且產品為供給性稀少時，求偶思維會比非求偶思維的消費者產生較高的品牌偏好；但使用暗喻廣告且需求性稀少時，求偶思維並不會對品牌偏好產生顯著差異。

This research attempts to explore the impact of different scenarios of mating mind-set on their brand preference, as well as the moderating effects of metaphors used in the ad and the scarcity of the products. A 2 (mating mind-set: yes vs. no) × 2 (ad metaphors: low vs. high) × 2 (scarcity appeal: demand vs. supply) between-subjects factorial experimental design is conducted. Research findings indicate that (1) For a low metaphorical ad, people with non-mating mind-sets are likely to engender stronger brand preference than those with mating mind-sets; on the contrary, for a highly metaphorical ad, no differential brand preference between people with mating mind-sets and those with non-mating mind-sets. (2) For an ad characterized by the supply scarcity appeal, people with mating mind-sets are likely to engender stronger brand preference than those with non-mating mind-sets; on the contrary, for an ad characterized by the demand scarcity appeal, no differential brand preference between people with mating mind-sets and those with non-mating mind-sets. (3) For a low metaphorical ad, supply scarcity appeal is likely to elicit no differential brand preference between people with mating mind-sets and those with non-mating mind-sets; in contrast, for a low metaphorical ad characterized by the demand scarcity appeal, people with non-mating mind-sets are likely to engender stronger brand preference than those with mating mind-sets. Moreover, for a highly metaphorical ad characterized by the supply scarcity appeal, people with mating mind-sets are likely to engender stronger brand preference than those with non-mating mind-sets; in contrast, for a highly metaphorical ad characterized by the demand scarcity appeal, no differential brand preference between people with mating mind-sets and those with non-mating mind-sets will be found.

中文部份
李岳（2003）。網路廣告理解研究。國立台灣大學資訊管理研究所碩士論文，未出版，台北市。
楊雅棠 、邱美惠、翁郁權（2011）。獨特性需求、限量策略之消費知覺價值與購買意圖關條之研究：以中式白酒產品為例。商學學報，19，55-67。
鄧育仁、孫式文（2000）。廣告裡的圖象隱喻:從多空間模式分析。新聞學研究，62，35-71。
蕭至惠、蔡進發、曾千桓（2018）沉浸戀愛氛圍將左右著消費者的思維與行為？中山管理評論，26(2)，135~172。

英文部份
Baker, M. D., Jr., & Maner, J. K. (2008). Risk-taking as a situationally sensitive male mating strategy. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29, 391–395.
Baker, William, J. Wesley Hutchinson, Danny Moore, and Prakash Nedungadi (1986), "Brand Familiarity and Advertising: Effects on the Evoked Set and Brand Preferences," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, Richard J. Lutz, ed. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 637-642.
Bargh, J. A. (1990). Auto-motives: Preconscious determinant of social interaction. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and social cognition: Foundations of social behavior,2,93–130. New York: Guilford Press.
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 464–479.
Becker, Gary S. 1996a. Accounting for Tastes. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press .
Biswas, A., (1992), “The Moderating Role of Brand Familiarity in Reference Price Advertisement”, Journal of Business Research, 25, 251-262
Boozer, R. W., Wyld, D. C., & Grant, J. (1992). Using metaphor to create more effective sales messages. The Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 7(1), 19-27.
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual Strategies Theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100(2), 204–232
Chan, E. Y. (2015). Physically-attractive males increase men’s financial risk-taking. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36, 407-413.
Chang, Hsin Hsin and Ya Ming Liu (2009), “The Impact of Brand Equity on Brand Preference and Purchase Intentions in the Service Industries,”The Service Industries Journal, 29 (12), 1687-1706.
Chang, C., & Tseng, C. (2013). Can Sex Sell Bread? The Impacts of Sexual Appeal Type, Product Type and Sensation Seeking. International Journal of Advertising, 32(4), 559-585.
Cialdini, R. B. (1985). Influence: Science and Practice. New York: Harper Collin.
Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1992). Cognitive adaptations for social exchange. In J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 163–228). Oxford University Press.
Dingena, M. (1994). The Creation of Meaning in Advertising, Tinbergen Institute Research Series, No.62, Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers.
Durante, K. M., Griskevicius, V., Hill, S. E., Perilloux, C., & Li, N. P. (2011). Ovulation, Female Competition, and Product Choice: Hormonal Influences on Consumer Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 921–934.
Ebrahim, R., Ghoneim, A., Irani, Z., & Fan, Y. (2016). A brand preference and repurchase intention model: the role of consumer experience. Journal of Marketing Management,32(13-14), 1230-1259.
Eisend, Martin (2008), "Explaining the Impact of Scarcity Appeals in Advertising: The Mediating Role of Perceptions of Susceptibility," Journal of Advertising, 37 (3), 33–40.
Festjens, A., Bruyneel, S., & Dewitte, S. (2014). What a feeling! Touching sexually laden stimuli makes women seek rewards. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 24, 387-393.
Fishbein, M. (1963). An investigation of the relationship between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward that object. Human Relations.16, 233-239.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2007). An Introduction to Language Eighth Edition. Tomson Wadsworth.
Gierl, H. and Huettl, V. (2010), “Are Scarce Products Always More Attractive? The Interaction of Different Types of Scarcity Signals with Products' Suitability for Conspicuous Consumption,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 27(3), 225-235.
Gierl, H., Plantsch, M. and Schweidler, J. (2008), “Scarcity Effects on Sales Volume in Retail,” The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 18(1), 45-61.
Goncalves, O. F. and Craine, M., (1990). The Use of Metaphors in Cognitive Therapy,Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 4(1), 135-150.
Greitemeyer, T., Kastenmüller, A., & Fischer, P. (2013). Romantic motives and risk-taking: An evolutionary approach. Journal of Risk Research, 16, 19–38.
Griskevicius, Vladas, Joshua M. Tybur, Jill M. Sundie, Robert B. Cialdini, Geoffrey F. Miller, and Douglas T Kenrick (2007), “Blatant Benevolence and Conspicuous Consumption: When Romantic Motives Elicit Strategic Costly Signals.,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(1), 85–102.
Griskevicius, Vladas, Robert B. Cialdini, and Douglas T. Kenrick (2006), “Peacocks, Picasso, and Parental Investment: The Effects of Romantic Motives on Creativity,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 63–76.
Gutierres, S. E., Kenrick, D. T., & Partch, J. J. (1999). Beauty, dominance, and the mating game: Contrast effects in self-assessment reflect gender differences in mate selection. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1126–1134.
Haselton, M. G., & Buss, D. M. (2000). Error management theory: A new perspective on biases in cross-sex mind reading. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 81–91
Haselton, M., & Miller, G. (2006). Women’s fertility across the cycle increases the short-term attractiveness of creative intelligence. Human Nature, 17, 50–73.
Hellier, P. K., G. M. Geursen., R. A. Carr., and J. A. Rickard, (2003), Customer Repurchase Intention: A General Structural Equation Model. European Jouranl of Marketing , 37, 1762-1800.
Higie, R. A., & Sewall, M. A. (1991). Using recall and brand preference to evaluate advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research, 31(2), 56–63.
Hill, S. E., & Durante, K. M. (2011). Courtship, competition, and the pursuit of attractiveness: Mating goals facilitate health-related risk taking and strategic risk suppression in women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 383–394.
Howard, John A. and Jagdish N. Sheth (1969), The Theory of Buyer Behavior. NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Jedidi, Kamel, Carl F. Mela, and Sunil Gupta (1999). "Managing Advertising and Promotion for Long-Run Profitability," Marketing Science, 18(1), 1-22.
Kanazawa, S., (2000). Scientific Discoveries as Cultural Displays: A Further Test of Miller's Courtship Model, Evolution and Human Behavior, 21(5), 317- 321.
Kawasaki, M., Yamaguchi, Y (2012). Effects of subjective preference of colors on attention-related occipital theta oscillations. NeuroImage, 59, 808-814.
Kaplan, S. (2005), Visual metaphors in print advertising for fashion products, Handbook of visual communication: Theory, methods, and media, 167-178.
Kaplan, S.J.A (1992), Conceptual analysis of form and content in visual metaphors, Communication, 13(3), 197-209.
Kaufman, S.B., Kozbelt, A., Bromley, M.L., & Miller, G.F. (2008). The role of creativity and humor in human mate selection. In G. Geher & G. Miller (Eds.), Mating intelligence: Sex, relationships, and the mind’s reproductive system (pp.227–262) Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Keller, K. L. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 1-22.
Keller, L. K., (2001), “Building Customer-Based Brand Equity”, Marketing Management, 10(2) , 15-19.
Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., & Keefe, R. C. (1998). Evolutionary cognitive psychology: The missing heart of modern cognitive science. In C. Crawford & D. L. Krebs (Eds.), Handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp.485–514). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kolter, P. (2000). Marketing Management, The Millennium Edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Lagerwerf, L., & Meijers, A. (2008). Openness in metaphorical and straightforward advertisements: Appreciation effects. Journal of Advertising, 37, 19–30.
Lakeoff G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphor We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Larsen, Val., Luna, David., & Peracchio, Laura A. (2004). Points of View and Pieces of Time : A Taxonomy of Image Attributes. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1),102-111.
Li, N. P., Bailey, J. M., Kenrick, D. T., & Linsenmeier, J. A. W. (2002). The necessities and luxuries of mate preferences: Testing the tradeoffs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 947-955.
Liu, F., Cheng, H., & Li, J. (2009). Consumer Responses to Sex Appeal Advertising: A Cross-Cultural Study. International Marketing Review, 26(4-5), 501-520.
Li, Y. J., Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., & Neuberg, S. L. (2012). Economic decision biases and fundamental motivations: How mating and self-protection alter loss aversion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 550-561.
Lynn, M. (1992), “Scarcity’s Enhancement of Desirability: The Role of Naïve Economic Theories,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13(1), 67-78.
Lynn, M. (1991), “Scarcity Effects on Value: A Quantitative Review of the Commodity Theory Literature,” Psychology and Marketing, 8(1), 43-57.
Lynn, M. (1989), “Scarcity Effects on Desirability: Mediated by Assumed Expensiveness,” Journal of Economic Psychology, 10(2), 257-274.
MacInnis, D. J., Moorman, C., and Jaworski, B. J., (1991). Enhancing and Measuring Consumers' Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability to Process Brand Information from Ads, Journal of Marketing, 55(4), 32-53.
MacInnis, Deborah J. (2004), “Crystal Clear Concepts: Using Metaphors to Expand Dimensional Thinking,” ACR News (Winter), 1–4.
MacRury, I. (2009), Advertising. New Forms and Intimacies, New York: Routledge.
Marfo-Yiadom, E. (2000). Dynamics of Brand Preference: An Application of Expectancy-Value Model to Consumer Preference for Laundry Soap. Oguaa Social Science Journal, 2 (1), 24-42
McAlvanah, P. (2009). Are people more risk-taking in the presence of the opposite sex? Journal of Economic Psychology, 30, 136 –146
McQuarrie, E.F. and Mick, D.G. (2003), Visual and verbal rhetorical figures under directed processing versus incidental exposure to advertising, Journal of Consumer Research, 29(4), 579-587.
McQuarrie, EF and Mick, D.G. (1996), Figures of rhetoric in advertising language, The Journal of consumer Research, 22(4), 424-438.
Miller, G. (2000). The mating mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
Monga, A. B. and Gürhan-Canli, Z., 2012, “The Influence of Mating Mind-Sets on Brand Extension Evaluation,” Journal of Marketing Research, 49(4), 581-593.
Morgan, S.E. and Reichert, T. (1999), The message is in the metaphor: Assessing the comprehension of metaphors in advertisements, Journal of Advertising, 28(4), 1-12.
Norton, F. (1987). The Coase Theorem and Suboptimization in Marketing Channels, Marketing-Science 6(3), 268-285.
O'Cass, Dr. Aron and Kenny Lim (2002), “The Influence of Brand Associations on Brand Preference and Purchase Intention,” Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 14 (2-3), 41-71.
O¨ hman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108, 483–522.
Oliver, R. L., Robertson, T. S., & Mit chell, D. J. (1993). Imaging and analyzing in response to new product advertising. Journal of Advertising, 22, 35–50.
Ortony, A., Schallert, D., Reynolds, R., & Antos, S. (1978). Interpreting metaphors and idioms: Some effects of context on comprehension. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17(4), 465-477.
Parkin, M., & Bade, R. (2004). Foundations of economics (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Pawlowski, D. R., Badzinski, D. M., & Mitchell, N. (1998). Effects of Metaphors on Children's Comprehension and Perception of Print Advertisements. Journal of Advertising, 27(2), 83-98.
Petty, R. E., Wegener, D. T., & Fabrigar, L. R. (1997). Attitudes and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 609−647.
Phillips, B.J. and McQuarrie, E.F. (2004), Beyond visual metaphor: A new typology of visual rhetoric in advertising, Marketing Theory, 4, 113-136.
Phillips, B. J. & McQuarrie E. F. (2009). Impact of advertising metaphor on consumer belief. Journal of Advertising, 38(1), 49-61.
Porter, P. G. (1971). Advertising in the Early Cigarette Industry: W. Duke, Sons & Company of Durham. The North Carolina Historical Review, 48(1), 31-43.
Putrevu, S. (2008). Consumer Responses Toward Sexual and Nonsexual Appeals: The Influence of Involvement, Need for Cognition (NFC), and Gender. Journal of Advertising, 37(2), 57-70
Reichert, T. & Ramirez, A. (2000). Defining Sexually Oriented Appeals in Advertising: AGrounded Theory Investigation. Advances in Consumer Research, 27(1), 267-273.
Reichert, T. (2002). Sex in Advertising Research: A Review of Content, Effects, and Functions of Sexual Information in Consumer Advertising. Annual Review of Sex Research, 13(1), 241-273.
Reichert, T. (2007). The Ageless Allure: Sex, Media, and Marketing. Journal of Promotion Management, 13(1-2), 3-11
Reichert, T., Childers, C. C., & Reid, N. L. (2012). How Sex in Advertising Varies by ProductCategory: An Analysis of Three Decades of Visual Sexual Imagery in Magazine Advertising, Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 33(1), 1-19
Ridgeway, C. L., 1978, “Conformity, Group-oriented Motivation, and Status Attainment in Small Groups,” Social Psychology,41(3), 175-188.
Ronay, R., & von Hippel, W. (2010). The presence of an attractive woman elevates testosterone and physical risk taking in young men. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 1, 57-64.
Roy, R., & Sharma, P. (2015). Scarcity appeal in advertising: exploring the moderating roles of need for uniqueness and message framing. Journal of Advertising, 44, 349-359.
Sagoff, M. (2003). On the relation between preference and choice. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 31(6), 587-598.
Schaller, M., Faulkner, J., Park, J. H., Neuberg, S. L., & Kenrick, D. T. (2004). Impressions of danger influence impressions of people: An evolutionary perspective on individual and collective cognition. Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology, 2, 231–247.
Schiffman, L. G., & Kanuk, L. L., (2000), “Consumer Behavior”, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Shanks, D. R., Vadillo, M. A., (2015). Romance, risk, and replication: Can consumer choices and risk-taking be primed by mating motives?. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 144(6), 142-158
Scott, J. P. (1980). The function of emotions in behavioral systems: A systems theory analysis. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp.35–56). New York: Academic Press
Snyder, C. R., & Fromkin, H. L. (1980), Uniqueness: The human pursuit of difference. New York: Plenum.
Snyder, C.R., (1992), “Product Scarcity by Need for Uniqueness Interaction: A Consumer Catch-22 Carousel?” Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13 (1), 9-24.
Steen, G. J. (1989). Metaphor and literary comprehension: Towards a discourse theory of metaphor in literature. Poetics, 18(1-2), 113-141.
Stock, A., & Balachander, S. (2005). The making of a “hot product”: A signaling explanation of marketers' scarcity strategy. Management Science, 51(8), 1181−1192.
Swami, S., & Khairnar, P. J. (2006). Optimal normative policies for marketing of products with limited availability. Annals of Operations Research, 143(1), 107−121.
Sundie, J. M., Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Vohs, K. D., & Beal, D. J. (2011). Peacocks, Porsches, and Thorstein Veblen: conspicuous consumption as a sexual signaling system. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 664–80.
Tian, K. T., Bearden, W. O. and Hunter, G. L., (2001). Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness: Scale Development and Validation, Journal of Consumer Research, 28(1), 199-214.
Todd, P. M., & Gigerenzer, G. (2000). Precis of“simple heuristics that make us smart.” Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 1, 727–780.
Tom, G. and Eves, A. (1999), The use of rhetorical devices in advertising, Journal of Advertising Research, 39(4), 39-43.
Vag, Andras (2007), “Simulating Changing Consumer Preferences: A Dynamic Conjoint Model,”Journal of Business Research, 60 (8), 904-911.
Verhallen, T. M. M. and Robben, H. S. J. (1994), “Scarcity and Preference: An Experiment on Unavailability and Product Evaluation,” Journal of Economic Psychology, 15(2), 315-331.
Verhallen, T. M. M. (1982), “Scarcity and Consumer Choice Behavior,” Journal of Economic Psychology, 2(2), 299-322.
Wilson, D. & Moore, N. (1979). The Role of Sexually-Oriented Stimuli in Advertising: Theory and Literature Review. Advances in Consumer Research, 6(1), 55-61.
Winner, E. (1982). Invented World’s: The Psychology of the Art. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Wright, R. A., Greenberg, J., and Brehm, S. S. (2004), Motivational Analyses of Social Behavior: Building on Jack Brehm's Contributions to Psychology, Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Worchel, S., Lee, J. and Adewole, A. (1975), “Effects of Supply and Demand on Ratings of Object Value,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(5), 906-914.
Wu , c., & Hsing , S. S. (2006) . Less is more: How scarcity influences consumers' value perceptions and purchase intents through mediating variables. Journal of American Academy of Business , 9(2), 125-132.
Wu , W. Y., Lu , H. Y., Wu , Y. Y., & Fu , C. S. (2012). The effects of product scarcity and consumers' need for uniqueness on purchase intention. International Journal of Consumer Studies , 36(3) , 263-274.
Zhao, C. P. (2010). The analysis of the evolutionary psychology about the China people about face- saving. Psychological Exploration, 30(5), 20-23.