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研究生： 盧奕廷
Lu, Yi-Ting
論文名稱： 二價金屬空氣電池中的氧氣電化學
Oxygen Electrochemistry in Divalent Metal-Air Batteries
指導教授： 胡啟章
Hu, Chi-Chang
Hardwick, Laurence J.
Hardwick, Laurence J.
口試委員: 黃炳照
Hwang, Bing-Joe
鄧熙聖
Teng, Hsisheng
吳乃立
Wu, Nae-Lih
張仍奎
Chang, Jeng-Kuei
王復民
Wang, Fu-Ming
學位類別： 博士
Doctor
系所名稱： 工學院 - 化學工程學系
Department of Chemical Engineering
論文出版年： 2021
畢業學年度： 109
語文別： 英文
論文頁數： 171
中文關鍵詞： 金屬空氣電池 、氧氣電化學 、鋅空氣電池 、鈣空氣電池 、空氣電極
外文關鍵詞： metal-air battery, oxygen electrochemistry, zinc-air battery, calcium-air battery, air electrode
相關次數： 點閱：3  下載：0 
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    • 本論文主要是在研究二價金屬空氣電池系統之中的氧氣電化學。第一章介紹儲能裝置、基本電化學原理、以及水系/有機系兩種空氣電池的系統。第二章介紹本論文中所使用到的所有材料鑑定技術以及電化學分析技術。
    在第三章中，本研究提出了一種微量鐵元素摻雜鎳鈷系氧化物與活性碳製作成之複合材料(Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC)作為氧氣還原反應(ORR)與氧氣產生反應(OER)之雙效型觸媒。活性碳可以提升Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4氧化物之雙效催化能力，另一方面，活性碳表面上形成一層緻密的Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4奈米顆粒包覆層，可以有效保護活性碳本身不被氧化或腐蝕，使得鋅空氣電池之空氣極的循環穩定性提升。三電極式的電化學測試被用來研究觸媒的催化性能，而鋅空氣全電池則被用來研究觸媒之催化性能以及循環穩定性能。使用本研究提出之複合材料作為空氣極的觸媒，組裝成鋅空氣電池，可以在100 mA cm-2的大電流密度下，穩定充放電至少十分鐘，且可提供高達99 mW cm-2的功率密度。
    在第四章中，本研究主要致力於研究氧氣還原反應與氧氣產生反應，與含有鈣離子(Ca2+)與四丁基銨陽離子(tetrabutylammonium, TBA+)之二甲基亞碸(dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO)電解液。本研究發現電解液中若缺乏四丁基銨陽離子，則氧氣還原反應是不可逆的，循環伏安圖(cyclic voltammogram, CV)中並未呈現氧氣產生反應的電流訊號。然而若是在電解液中加入四丁基銨陽離子並且經過多圈循環伏安掃描，則循環伏安圖會呈現出一個準可逆的氧氣產生電流訊號。經由電化學測試，本研究發現此氧氣產生的電流訊號與系統施加的電位，以及電解液中兩種陽離子(鈣離子與四丁基銨離子)的濃度，有很大關聯。進一步使用旋轉環-盤電極與臨場拉曼光譜研究此氧氣產生的訊號，發現此訊號可歸因於電極/電解液介面上所生成之”四丁基銨陽離子-超氧化物“之氧化還原對。根據所有電化學與拉曼光譜得到的結果，本論文提出了在四丁基過氯酸銨/過氯酸鈣/二甲基亞碸之電解液系統中，氧氣還原的反應機制，並指出在大的還原過電位與高濃度四丁基銨陽離子的條件下，有一可逆的”四丁基銨陽離子-超氧化物“的氧化還原對可以生成。

    This thesis is primarily focused on the electrochemistry of dioxygen in divalent metal-oxygen systems. Chapter 1 introduces energy storage, fundamental electrochemistry, and two distinct metal-air battery systems, using either an aqueous or non-aqueous electrolyte. Chapter 2 discusses all techniques for material characterisation and electrochemical characterisation applied in this thesis.
    In Chapter 3, a composite electrocatalyst consisting of iron-doped nickel cobalt oxide and activated carbon (Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC) was synthesised as the bifunctional catalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in aqueous 6 M KOH electrolytes. Activated carbon is shown to promote the bifunctionality of Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4 for the ORR and OER. Meanwhile, the complete coverage of Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4 nanoparticles on the surface of activated carbon protects the carbon substrate from corrosion/oxidation, resulting in improved cycling stability of the air electrode in zinc-air cells. Three-electrode measurements were performed to study intrinsic catalytic activity of Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC, while zinc-air full cell employing Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC was fabricated to study its cyclability and durability. The cell was able to discharge and charge stably for 10 min at 100 mA cm-2, with a maximum power density of 99 mW cm-2.
    In Chapter 4, the ORR and OER were studied in non-aqueous electrolytes containing both Ca2+ and tetrabutylammonium (TBA+) cations in dimethyl sulfoxide (TBAClO4/Ca(ClO4)2/DMSO). The electrolyte in the absence of TBA+ showed no reversibility at all, indicated by the lack of OER behaviour in the cyclic voltammograms. However, the addition of TBA+ resulted in the appearance and growth of a quasi-reversible OER peak upon repeated cycling. This OER peak was electrochemically characterised and found to be dependent on the applied potential and the concentrations of both Ca2+ and TBA+ cations. Rotating ring-disc electrode and in situ Raman spectroscopy were employed to investigate the species relating to the observed OER peak in TBAClO4/Ca(ClO4)2/DMSO. Results suggest this OER peak originates from the TBA-O2 species formed at the electrode/electrolyte interface. Based on all electrochemical and spectroscopic investigations, a mechanism is proposed to elucidate the ORR pathway in TBAClO4/Ca(ClO4)2/DMSO electrolytes, where large reductive overpotentials and higher concentrations of TBA+ facilitate the formation of the more reversible redox TBA-O2.

    摘要 I Abstract III 致謝 V Table of Contents VII List of Figures XI List of Tables XIX List of abbreviations XXI List of symbols and constants XXIII Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Energy storage 1 1.2 Electrochemistry 4 1.2.1 Electrochemical reactions 4 1.2.2 Important parameters in electrochemical reactions 8 1.2.3 Faradaic and non-Faradaic reactions 9 1.3 Aqueous zinc-air batteries 10 1.3.1 General introduction 10 1.3.2 Reaction mechanisms of the zinc-air battery system 12 1.3.3 Electrolytes 13 1.3.4 Zinc electrode 14 1.3.5 Oxygen reduction/evolution electrochemistry 15 1.3.6 Electrocatalysts and air electrode 19 1.4 Non-aqueous divalent metal-air batteries 27 1.4.1 General introduction 27 1.4.2 Non-aqueous electrolytes and oxygen electrochemistries 31 1.4.3 Metal electrode 35 1.4.4 Air electrode 40 1.5 Aim of this work 42 Chapter 2. Experimental Techniques and Theories 44 2.1 Material characterisations 44 2.1.1 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry 44 2.1.2 Thermogravimetric analysis 44 2.1.3 Scanning electron microscopy 45 2.1.4 Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy 45 2.1.5 Powder X-ray diffraction 46 2.1.6 Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis 47 2.1.7 Elemental analysis 48 2.1.8 Karl Fischer titration 49 2.1.9 Raman spectroscopy and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy 50 2.2 Electrochemical methods 52 2.2.1 Cyclic voltammetry 52 2.2.2 Linear sweep voltammetry 53 2.2.3 Rotating disc electrode and rotating ring-disc electrode 53 2.3.4 Tafel equation, Tafel slope and Tafel plot 58 2.3.5 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy 60 2.3.6 Chronopotentiometry and galvanostatic charge-discharge measurement 64 2.3.7 Quasi-reference electrode 64 Chapter 3. Oxygen Reduction and Oxygen Evolution Reactions in Aqueous Electrolytes: Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/Activated Carbon Composites for Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries 66 3.1 Motivation 66 3.2 Experimental methods 69 3.2.1 Chemicals 69 3.2.2 Instrumentation 70 3.2.3 Synthesis of Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC electrocatalysts 71 3.2.4 Material characterisations 71 3.2.5 Electrochemical characterisations in half cells 72 3.2.6 Preparation of the air electrode 73 3.2.7 Tests for rechargeable zinc-air cells 73 3.3 Results and discussion 75 3.3.1 Material characterisations of Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC electrocatalysts 75 3.3.2 Electrochemical characterisations of Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC electrocatalysts in the three-electrode system 83 3.3.3 Evaluation of the ORR/OER performance and durability for Fe0.1Ni0.9Co2O4/AC electrocatalysts in rechargeable zinc-air full cells 95 3.4 Conclusions 103 Chapter 4. Oxygen Reduction and Oxygen Evolution Reactions in Aprotic Electrolytes: Dioxygen Electrochemistry in a Ca2+-Containing Electrolyte 104 4.1 Motivation 104 4.2 Experimental methods 106 4.2.1 Chemicals 106 4.2.2 Instrumentation 107 4.2.3 Electrochemical characterisations 107 4.2.4 Electrochemical surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy 108 4.3 Results and discussion 109 4.4 Conclusions 144 Chapter 5. Summary and Future Work 145 Chapter 6. References 148 Curriculum Vitae 169

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