牛血清白蛋白模板合成之金屬奈米材料用於感測及抗菌應用

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研究生：	安米特 Nain, Amit
論文名稱：	牛血清白蛋白模板合成之金屬奈米材料用於感測及抗菌應用 Synthesis of BSA-Templated Metal Nanostructures for Sensing and Antimicrobial Applications
指導教授：	曾繁根 Tseng, Fan-Gang 張煥宗 Chang, Huan-Tsung
口試委員:	黃志清 Huang, Chih-Ching 黃郁棻 Huang, Yu-Fen 林宗宏 Lin, Zong-Hong
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	原子科學院 - 工程與系統科學系 Department of Engineering and System Science
論文出版年：	2021
畢業學年度：	109
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	217
中文關鍵詞：	牛血清白蛋白、金屬、奈米材料、抗菌劑、生物膜、感測器
外文關鍵詞：	Bovine Serum Albumin, Metals, Nanomaterials, Antimicrobials, Biofilms, Sensors
相關次數：	點閱：1 下載：0
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奈米材料已不僅在材料合成與性質探討，而是能利用多功能奈米材料來面對全球健康危機，尤其是細菌感染與環境汙染問題，來創造出生物醫學與環境監控的真正實用價值。儘管許多相關研究正在進行中，但離真正商化目標還是相當遙遠。本博士論文的目的是設計具高生物相容性與應答性金屬奈米結構，並應用於臨床菌株抗菌與抗生物膜和環境水樣重金屬汙染檢測。
細菌耐藥性和抗生素的發展緩慢是臨床細菌感染相當危機議題，尤其目前抗菌試劑對多重抗藥性（multidrug-resistant, MDR）細菌及其生物膜的抑制和移除仍有很大發展空間。首先，我們在牛血清白蛋白（bovine serum albumin, BSA）和1,3-丙二酚（1,3-propanedithiol, PDT）為模板和修試劑製備了光致發光之銅奈米簇（copper nanoclusters, Cu NCs）。所製備PDT/BSA-Cu NCs具有廣譜抗菌活性，包括耐甲氧西林金黃色葡萄球菌（methicillin-resistant S. aureus, MRSA）。 Cu NCs的最低抑菌濃度（Minimal inhibitory concentration, MIC）值比PDT和BSA-Cu NCs分別低⁓240和10倍。由於PDT的親脂性，超小尺寸奈米團簇（⁓2nm）可以與細菌膜相互作用，並誘導產生抗壞血酸（Asc·）和過羥基（HOO·）自由基的產生，從而破壞細菌細胞膜完整性還達多重抑菌效果。另一方面，PDT/BSA-Cu NCs對哺乳動物細胞的細胞毒性相當低。我們進一步證明PDT/BSA-Cu NCs塗層碳纖維織物（carbon fiber fabric, CFF）在防污應用中具有巨大潛力。
在另一項研究中，硫化銅奈米晶體（copper sulfide nanocrystals, CuS NCs）由銅離子和BSA在鹼性溶液中加熱後所製備，在合成過程不須額外添加其它硫源。在高BSA濃度（0.8 mM）下，可形成了BSA–CuS NCs。除了它們固有的光熱特性，BSA-CuS NCs還具有豐富的硫和氧表面空位，因此表現出仿酶和光動力活性。過氧化氫（H2O2）的自發產生導致在BSA-CuS NC上原位形成過氧化銅（copper peroxide, CPO）奈米點以催化單線態氧（1O2）自由基產生。透過近紅外光照射後因光動力和光熱之聯合作用，抗菌效果增強了60倍以上。此外，由於BSA-CuS NCs具有額外仿過氧化物酶活性，將NCs用於感染MRSA之傷口上，並在NIR照射下僅1分鐘，可將感染部位的H2O2轉化為羥基自由基，協同光熱效應可移除傷口>99％的細菌。最後，我們將鉍離子摻雜到CuxS NC中以製備BSA–BiZ/CuxS NC，其中BiZ代表Bi2S3和硫氧化鉍（bismuth oxysulfides, BOS）。因BiZ/CuxS異質接面、表面空位和可控能階變化，使BSA-BiZ/CuxS NC具有獨特光動力和光熱特性。BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs不僅對標準MDR細菌菌株具有廣譜抗生物膜活性，而且近紅外光照射下對臨床分離的MDR細菌也具有廣譜的抗生物膜活性。因此，我們認為具有優異性能及高生物相容性的金屬奈米結構具有巨大潛力，可作為傳感探針及殺菌劑。
在環境水樣重金屬汙染物監控方面，我們製備超小尺寸奈米團簇，其光學特性可以通過表面改質來控制。我們使用BSA和硫代水楊酸（thiosalicylic acid, TSA）合成了Au，Ag和Cu NCs。這些NCs具金屬核和金屬硫醇殼層，在各自的NCs中，質譜儀鑑定得知殼層的組成分別為Au38SR24，Ag9SR7和Cu314SRm。利用嗜金屬相互作用、金屬-硫醇錯合和/或螢光內濾效應誘導，NCs的螢光猝滅可進行Hg2 +、As3 +和Cr6 +的選擇性的偵測和定量，線性範圍分別為1350、120和50400 nM，且可應用於自來水、湖水和海水中這些重金屬的監控。

Nanotechnology is going through a major paradigm shift for the development of multifunctional nanomaterials to circumvent global health crisis, thus creates a huge opportunity for discovery and innovation. Although the research is progressing but commercial impact still seems far-fetched. The objective of this thesis is to design stable metal nanostructures with interesting physicochemical properties to investigate their roles in antimicrobial and sensing applications.
The rise in bacterial resistance and stagnant development of antibiotics is a medical emergency, and discovery of antimicrobial materials with desired efficacy against multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria and biofilms is still dwindling. Firstly, we prepared photoluminescent copper nanoclusters (Cu NCs) in the with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and 1,3-propanedithiol (PDT). As-prepared PDT/BSA–Cu NCs exhibit broad-spectrum antibacterial activity including multidrug-resistant bacteria (methicillin-resistant S. aureus; MRSA). Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of Cu NCs were ⁓250 fold lower than control samples. The ultra-small NCs (⁓2 nm) can interact with bacterial membrane due to the lipophilic nature of PDT and induce the generation of ascorbyl (Asc·) and perhydroxyl (HOO·) radicals, which resulted in disruption of their membrane integrity. The PDT/BSA–Cu NCs showed negligible cytotoxicity towards tested mammalian cell lines. We further demonstrated that low-cost PDT/BSA–Cu NCs-coated carbon fiber fabrics (CFFs) hold great potential in antifouling applications.
In another study, copper sulfide nanocrystals (CuS NCs) were prepared by heating an alkaline solution containing copper ions and BSA without an additional sulfur source. In addition to their intrinsic photothermal properties, the BSA–CuS NCs possess rich surface vacancies, and therefore exhibit enzyme-like and photodynamic activities. Spontaneous generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) led to the in situ formation of copper peroxide (CPO) nanodots on the BSA–CuS NCs to catalyze singlet oxygen (1O2) radical generation. The antimicrobial response was enhanced by >60-fold upon NIR laser irradiation, which was ascribed to the combined effect of the photodynamic and photothermal inactivation of bacteria. Furthermore, NCs were transdermally administered onto a MRSA-infected wound and eradicated >99% of bacteria in just 1 min under NIR illumination due to the additional peroxidase-like activity of BSA–CuS NCs, transforming H2O2 at the infection site into hydroxyl radicals and thus increasing the synergistic effect from photodynamic and photothermal treatment. Lastly, we doped bismuth ions into CuxS NCs to prepare BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs, where BiZ represents Bi2S3 and bismuth oxysulfides (BOS). The BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs with BiZ/CuxS heterojunctions, surface vacancies, and manipulated optical bandgap engender excellent photodynamic and photothermal properties. As-prepared BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs exhibit broad-spectrum antibiofilm activity not only against standard MDR bacterial strains but also against clinically isolated MDR bacteria upon near-infrared (NIR) irradiation. Therefore, we believe that metal nanostructures with exceptional properties and high biocompatibility holds a great potential as a sensing probe and biocide.
Optical properties of tiny NCs can be manipulated via surface modification. We synthesized Au, Ag and Cu NCs using BSA and thiosalicylic acid (TSA). The MNCs has metal core and metal–thiolate shell, where shell species were Au38–SR24, Ag9–SR7 and Cu3–14–SRm in the respective NCs. PL quenching of MNCs induced through metallophilic interaction, metal–thiol complexation and/or inner filter effect enabled the quantitation of Hg2+, As3+, and Cr6+ ions, with linear ranges of 1–350, 1–20, and 50–400 nM, and limits of detection of 0.25, 0.34 and 3.54 nM, respectively in sea water.

Table of Content
Chapter 1 : Introduction ………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.     Introduction to nanomaterials……………...……………………………………………….... 1
2.     Synthesis of metal nanostructures …………………………………………………….....…... 1
2.1.  Metal nanoclusters (M NCs)……………………………………………………. .…. 2
2.2.  Copper sulfide nanocrystals (CuS NCs)…………………………………………...... 2
2.3.  Bi doped copper sulfide nanocomposites (Bi/CuS NCs)………………………......... 3
3. Properties of copper based nanomaterials………………………………………………...….. 3
3.1.  Fenton chemistry……………………………………………………………..….…... 3
3.2.  Photoresponsive action…………………………………………………… … …….. 4
3.3.  Chemodynamic response………………………………………………………..…... 4
3.4.  Heterostructure and vacancy formation… …..…………………………………..…... 5
4. Applications of copper based nanomaterials…………………...……………………………. 5
4.1.  Antimicrobial………………………………………………………………………..... 5
4.1.1 Antibacterial textile…………………………………………………… ……... 6
4.1.2 Wound healing…………………………………………………………… ….. 6
4.1.3 Antibiofilm…………………………………………………………………… 7
4.2.  Heavy metal sensing…………………..…………………………………………… ... 7
5. References…………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Chapter 2 : Capping 1, 3-propanedithiol to boost the antibacterial activity of protein-templated copper nanoclusters……………………………………………………………….. 14
1.    Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….... 14
2.    Experimental Section………………………………………………………………………. 17
2.1.    Chemicals…………………………………………………………………………… 17
2.2.    Synthesis of BSA–Cu NCs and BSA/PDT–Cu NCs……………………………….. 18
2.3.    Characterization of Cu NCs………………………………………………………… 18
2.4.    Bacterial culture…………………………………………………………………….. 19
2.5.    Antibacterial assays………………………………………………………………… 20
2.6.    TEM Images of Bacteria……………………………………………………………. 20
2.7.    Permeability of Bacterium Membranes…………………………………………….. 21
2.8.    Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Assays………………………………………….... 21
2.9.    Bacterial Viability Assays…………………………………………………………... 21
2.10.    In vitro Cytotoxicity Assays………………………………………………………... 22
2.11.    Hemolysis Assays…………………………………………………………………... 23
2.12.    Functionalization of carbon fiber fabrics (CFFs) and bacterial inactivation efficiency test…………………………………………………………………………………... 23
3.    Results and discussion……………………………………………………………………... 24
3.1.    Synthesis and characterization of BSA–Cu NCs…………………………………… 24
3.2.    Antibacterial activity………………………………………………………………... 28
3.3.    Antibacterial mechanism…………………………………………………………… 30
3.4.    Biocompatibility of PDT3.6/BSA–Cu NCs…………………………………………. 32
3.5.    Antibacterial PDT3.6/BSA–Cu NCs–coated carbon fiber fabrics…………………... 33
4.    Conclusions………………………………………………………………………….……... 35
5.    References………………………………………………………………………………..… 35
Chapter 3 : Copper sulfide nanoassemblies for catalytic and photoresponsive eradication of bacteria from infected wounds………………………………………………………………... 59
1.     Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..…….. 59
2.     Experimental Section………………………………………………………………...…….. 62
2.1.    Chemicals…………………………………………………………...…...…….... 62
2.2.    Synthesis of of BSA–CuS NCs and CTAB/BSA–CuS NCs ……..…....……..... 63
2.3.    Characterization of BSA–CuxS NCs…………………………………..….…,....  64
2.4.    Photoresponsive properties of BSA–CuxS NCs……………………...….,….….. 65
2.5.    Bacterial Cultures and Antibacterial Assays …………………………..….,..….. 65
2.6.    In vivo antibacterial activity……………………………………………...…,..… 64
2.7.    TEM images of bacteria……………………………………….………......,…… 66
2.8.    Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Assays……………………….……...…,..…... 67
2.9.    Bacterial Viability Assays……………………………………………..…...,…... 68
2.10.    In vitro Cytotoxicity Assays………………………………………..….…..…… 69
2.11.    Hemolysis Assays…………………………………………………....…….…… 69
2.12.    In vivo Biocompatibility Evaluation………………………………...…….….… 70
3.     Results and Discussion………………………………………………………...……..…..... 71
3.1.    Synthesis and Characterization of BSA–CuxS NCs……………….....……...…. 71
3.2.    Formation of CPO Nanodots in BSA–CuxS NCs …………………....……..….. 74
3.3.    Catalytic and Photoresponsive Properties of BSA0.8–CuxS NCs ….…..…...…... 75
3.4.    Antibacterial properties and mechanism………………………….……..…...…. 80
3.5.    Stability and Biocompatibility Evaluation of CTAB/BSA0.8–CuxS NCs…….… 84
3.6.    In Vivo Antimicrobial Application of CTAB/BSA0.8–CuxS/CPO NCs ……....... 86
4.     Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..…... 87
5.     References………………………………………………………………………………….. 88
Chapter 4 : Bimetallic sulfide heterojunctions in BSA templated copper/bismuth nanocomposites augment photoeradication of clinical isolates…………………......…..….. 120
1.    Introduction……………………………………………………………………….……….. 120
2.     Experimental Section…………………………………………….……………………….. 123
2.1.    Chemicals…………………………………………………………………….... 123
2.2.    Synthesis of BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs……………………………………...……... 124
2.3.    Characterization of BSA–BiZ/CuxS, –CuxS, and –Bi2S3 Nanomaterials …...... 124
2.4.    Photoresponsive Assays of BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs …………………...…...….... 126
2.5.    Bacterial Cultures and Antibacterial Assays….………………………..….….. 127
2.6.    Antimicrobial Susceptibility of BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs against Clinical Isolates. 127
2.7.    Bacterial Viability Assays ……………...……………………………………... 128
2.8.    Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Assays…..……………………...…………... 129
2.9.    Permeability of Bacterium Membranes..………………………………….…... 129
2.10.    SEM and TEM images of Bacteria..………………………………………...… 130
2.11.    In vitro Cytotoxicity Assays……………………………….………………….. 131
2.12.    Hemolysis Assays……………………………………………………………... 131
2.13.    Antibiofilm Activity of BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs…………………………………. 132
3.     Results and Discussion………………………………………………………………….... 133
3.1.    Synthesis and Characterizations of Composite Nanomaterials………….……. 133
3.2.    Formation of Heterojunctions in BiZ/CuxS NCs….…………………………... 134
3.3.    Photoresponsive Properties and Mechanism……..………………………….... 136
3.4.    Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Mechanism…………………………………. 139
3.5.    In Vitro Cytotoxicity Assays………………….……………………………….. 142
3.6.    Antibiofilm Activity of BSA–BiZ/CuxS NCs………...……………………….. 143
4.     Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….………….. 144
5.     References…………………………………………………………………..…………….. 144
Chapter 5 : Tuning the photoluminescence of metal nanoclusters for selective detection of multiple heavy metal ions……………………………………………………………….….… 174
1.     Introduction………………………………………………………………………….….… 174
2.     Experimental Section…………………………………………………………….….……. 176
2.1.    Chemicals…………………………………...……………………………..…... 176
2.2.    Synthesis of TSA/BSA–MNCs……………………...…………………..…….. 177
2.3.    Characterization of TSA/BSA–MNCs………………...………………..……... 177
2.4.    Detection of Hg2+, As3+, and Cr6+ using TSA/BSA–MNCs……...……..…….. 179
2.5.    Detection of Hg2+, As3+, and Cr6+ in real samples…………………...…..……. 179
2.6.    Detection of Hg2+, As3+, and Cr6+ in real samples……………...…………..…. 180
3.     Results and Discussion………………………………………………………………..….. 181
3.1.    Synthesis of TSA/BSA–MNCs…………………………………...….……..…. 181
3.2.    Sensing of Hg2+, As3+, and Cr6+ ions by TSA/BSA–MNCs………....…..……. 185
3.3.    Detection of Hg2+, As3+, Cr6+ ions in real water sample…………....……..…... 188
4.     Conclusions……………………………………………………………………….…..…... 189
5.     References……………………………………………………………………...….…...…. 190
Chapter 6 : Conclusion and prospectives……………..………………………………...…… 215
1. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...…………. 215
2. Future Prospective……………………………………………………………..………….. 217

                                

Chapter 1

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29. Uyguner Demirel, C. S.; Birben, N. C.; Bekbolet, M., A comprehensive review on the use of second generation TiO2 photocatalysts: microorganism inactivation. Chemosphere 2018, 211, 420448.
30. Ananth, A.; Dharaneedharan, S.; Heo, M.–S.; Mok, Y. S., Copper oxide nanomaterials: synthesis, characterization and structure–specific antibacterial performance. Chem. Eng. J. 2015, 262, 179188.
31. Sirelkhatim, A.; Mahmud, S.; Seeni, A.; Kaus, N. H. M.; Ann, L. C.; Bakhori, S. K. M.; Hasan, H.; Mohamad, D. J. N.–M. L.,. Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nano Micro Lett. 2015, 7, 219242.
32. Gold, K.; Slay, B.; Knackstedt, M.; Gaharwar, A. K.; Antimicrobial activity of metal and metal–oxide based nanoparticles. Adv. Therap. 2018, 1, 1700033.
33. Shaikh, S.; Nazam, N.; Rizvi, S. M. D.; Ahmad, K.; Baig, M. H.; Lee, E. J.; Choi, I.; Mechanistic insights into the antimicrobial actions of metallic nanoparticles and their implications for multidrug resistance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 2468.
34. Edris, H.; Pouran, M.; Parisa, T.; Hooshyar, H.; John, S.; Amjad, M. K.; Ghulam Md., A review on nano–antimicrobials: metal nanoparticles, methods and mechanisms. Curr. Drug Metab. 2017, 18, 120128.
35. Lakshminarayanan, R.; Ye, E.; Young, D. J.; Li, Z.; Loh, X. J., Recent advances in the development of antimicrobial nanoparticles for combating resistant pathogens. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2018, 7, 1701400.
36. Ganguly, P.; Breen, A.; Pillai, S. C.; Toxicity of nanomaterials: exposure, pathways, assessment, and recent advances. ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 4, 22372275.
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Chapter 2

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17. Gold, K.; Slay, B.; Knackstedt, M.; Gaharwar, A. K.; Antimicrobial activity of metal and metal–oxide based nanoparticles. Adv. Therap. 2018, 1, 1700033.
18. Shaikh, S.; Nazam, N.; Rizvi, S. M. D.; Ahmad, K.; Baig, M. H.; Lee, E. J.; Choi, I.; Mechanistic insights into the antimicrobial actions of metallic nanoparticles and their implications for multidrug resistance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 2468.
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20. Lakshminarayanan, R.; Ye, E.; Young, D. J.; Li, Z.; Loh, X. J., Recent advances in the development of antimicrobial nanoparticles for combating resistant pathogens. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2018, 7, 1701400.
21. Ganguly, P.; Breen, A.; Pillai, S. C.; Toxicity of nanomaterials: exposure, pathways, assessment, and recent advances. ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 4, 22372275.
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Chapter 3

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7. Gupta, A.; Mumtaz, S.; Li, C. H.; Hussain, I.; Rotello, V. M. Combatting Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Using Nanomaterials. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2019, 48, 415–427
8. Barman, S. R.; Nain, A.; Jain, S.; Punjabi, N.; Mukherji, S.; Satija, J. Dendrimer as a Multifunctional Capping Agent for Metal Nanoparticles for use in Bioimaging, Drug Delivery and Sensor Applications. J. Mater. Chem. B 2018, 6, 2368-2384.
9. Azizi-Lalabadi, M.; Hashemi, H.; Feng, J.; Jafari, S. M. Carbon Nanomaterials against Pathogens; the Antimicrobial Activity of Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene/Graphene Oxide, Fullerenes, and Their Nanocomposites. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2020, 284, 102250.
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11. Tan, L.; Li, J.; Liu, X.; Cui, Z.; Yang, X.; Zhu, S.; Li, Z.; Yuan, X.; Zheng, Y.; Yeung, K. W. K. Rapid Biofilm Eradication on Bone Implants Using Red Phosphorus and Near‐infrared Light. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1801808.
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14. Cai, R.; Chen, C. The Crown and the Scepter: Roles of the Protein Corona in Nanomedicine. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, 1805740.
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