本研究主要目的是要探討國小六年級學童的學業成就失敗歸因型態和自我設限情形，同時檢視學童的失敗歸因型態、自我設限行為是否隨其性別與學業成就的差異而有所不同。本研究以四所國民小學六年級共658位學生，以自編的「自我設限量表」和「成敗歸因問卷」等工具進行施測。最後，以每班學期總成績排名前、後各三分之一的學童作為研究樣本，共得到432份有效問卷資料，並以卡方檢定、三因子多變量變異數分析等統計方法考驗之。
本研究結果顯示：（一）國小六年級學生的學業成就表現有女生優於男生的現象。（二）學童在學業成就失敗歸因型態上，以及在自我設限上皆無顯著的性別差異存在。（三）高成就的學童傾向將失敗歸因於缺乏努力，而低成就學童則主要歸因於努力和能力不足。（四）低學業成就學童的行為性和宣稱性自我設限均顯著高於高成就學童。（五）習慣以課業與考試難度作為失敗歸因者，比較容易發生自我設限行為。
本研究最後依據研究結果進行討論、建議，以提供教育工作者及未來研究者參考。

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among academic achievement, achievement failure attributions, and self-handicapping behaviors for sixth grade students. Gender differences on these variables were also examined. A total of 658 students were sampled from sixth grades of four primary schools. Subjects were asked to fill out both Self-Handicapping Scale and Attribution Questionnaire. Among the 658 students, 432 students were used as valid subjects by their academic performance to be one third upper or one third lower in their class, and treated as high and low academic achievement respectively. The obtained data were analyzed by chi-square test and multivariate analysis of variance.
The major findings of the study were: (1) Female students seemed to have better academic achievement than males. (2) No gender differences were found on achievement attributions for failure and self-handicapping behaviors. (3) The students with high academic achievement tended to attribute their failure to lack of effort, weather the students with low academic achievement attributed their failure to both lack of effort and disability. (4) The students with low academic achievement had higher self-handicapping behaviors than those with academic achievement. (5) The students who used to attribute task difficulty for failure easily have self-handicapping behaviors.
According to the result, this research provides suggestions to the school, the teacher, the self-handicapping students and future researches for reference.

一、中文部分
王大延（1985）。國小學童歸因方式與學業成就期望關係之研究。國立台灣師範大學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
王震武、林文瑛、林烘煜等人（2001）。心理學（初版）。台北：學富文化。
王澤惠（2003）。目標取向、自我評價及歸因型態對運動員自我設限行為之影響。台灣運動心理學報，3，1-20。
向天屏（1999）。國中小學生成就目標導向、學習策略、自我跛足策略與學業成就關係之研究。國立彰化師範大學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版
向天屏（2001）。自我跛足策略的理論基礎及其對教學的啟示。教育研究資訊，9，1-24。
余伯泉、李茂興譯（2003）。社會心理學（E. Aronson等原著）。台北：弘智文化。
吳知賢（1996）。歸因再訓練在國小班級情境實施之研究—錄影媒體教學實驗。國立政治大學教育研究所博士論文，未出版。
李介至（2005）。護專學生自我跛足策略、歸因型態及學習適應之相關研究。醫護科技學刊，7（3），267-313。
林宜螢（2002）。高中射箭選手目標取向、自覺能力、自我設限、自信心及成敗歸因之研究。國立體育學院教練研究所碩士論文，未出版。
涂淑娟（2003）。國小高年級不同性別、科學成就學生與科學態度、科學歸因關係之研究。國立嘉義大學國民教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
張鳳燕、楊妙芬、邱珍琬、蔡素紋等譯（2002）。人格心理學：策略與議題（M. L. Robert & L. L. Lynn著）。台北：五南。
梁茂森（1996）。魏納歸因理論之探研。高師大學報，7，101-126。
梁維中（2003）。國、高中學業自我設限行為之相關研究。國立台南師範學院社會科教育學系碩士論文，未出版。
莊耀嘉（1990）。國小學童自我設限之研究。屏東師範學院教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文，未出版。
莊耀嘉、黃光國（1981）。國中學生的成敗歸因與無助感特徵。中華心理學刊，23（2），155-164。
郭生玉（1983）。成功導向與失敗導向學童的學業成就及成就歸因比較研究。師大教育心理學報，16，47-60。
郭生玉（1984）。國小學童成敗歸因與學業成就及成敗預期關係之研究。師大教育心理學報，17，51-72。
郭生玉（1995）。國中學生成敗歸因型態和學業冒險取向、學習失敗忍受力關係之研究。師大教育心理學報，28，59-76。
陳世文（2003）。歸因遷移教學對原住民學童自然科自我效能與學習成就歸因之影響。國立花蓮師範學院科學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
陳永發（1996）。國小六年級學童學科學業成績、學業成敗歸因以及學科學業自我概念關係之研究。國立台中師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
陳偉瑀（2000）。競爭情境及回饋方式對高、低自我設限學生在運動練習行為、運動表現及歸因的影響。國立體育學院體育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
陳淑絹（1994）。國小男女生與成就高低學生成就歸因之比較研究。台中師院學報，8，127-162。
陳惠邦（1990）。自我設限與行為歸因。國立政治大學心理學研究所碩士論文，未出版。
曾淑容（1989）。國小六年級數學高、中和低成就學生性別、數學態度和數學歸因關係的研究。國教天地，4，245-270。
游淑燕（1986）。年級、性別、自我統整與成敗歸因關係之研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
黃雅惠（2005）。高職學生之自我設限、個人目標導向、自尊與學業表現之相關研究。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導學系碩士論文，未出版。
黃靖分（2005）。國中學生人格特質、自我保護策略與學業成就之研究。國立彰化師範大學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
楊岫穎（2003）。國中生自我設限的情境及歷程因素之研究。國立成功大學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
葉明衡（2001）。國小學童自我設限行為之研究。國立屏東師範學院教育心理學碩士論文，未出版。
趙英婷（2005）。高中生之自尊、個人目標導向、自我設限與學業表現之相關研究（以臺北市某一高中為例）。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導學系碩士論文，未出版。
歐慧敏（2002）。國小學生歸因方式、因應策略與行為困擾之調查與訪談研究。台北師範學院學報，15，283～312。
鄭慧玲（1976）。國中學生對學業成就的歸因與成就動機及學業成就的關係。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文，未出版。
潘如珮（2003）。高中生成就目標、成敗歸因、內隱理論、學生知覺教師態度、學業成就與自我跛足之關係。政治大學教育系碩士學位論文，未出版。
鄭建良（2002）。國民小學六年級學童數學科教師期望、成就動機、學業成就與成敗歸因關係之研究。國民教育研究學報，9，47-77。
鄭建信（1997）。國小學童的面子壓力研究。國立新竹師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
蕭伊玲（2005）。國中學生個人特質、知覺的教室目標結構、目標導向與自我設限之關係研究。國立彰化師範大學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版。
賴清標（1993）。魏納的歸因理論及其教育涵義。初等教育研究集刊，1，77-90。
二、英文部分
Arkin, R. M., & Baumgardner, A. H. (1985). Self handicapping. In J. H. Harvey & G. W. Weary (Eds.), Attribution: Basic issues and applications, 169-202. Orlando, FL: Academic.
Baumeister, R. F., & Scher, S. J. (1988). Self-defeating behavior patterns among normal individuals: Review and analysis of common self-destructive tendencies. Psychological Bulletin, 104 (1), 3-22.
Charles, E. K. & Edward, R. H. (2005).Self-focus, gender, and habitual self-handicapping：Do they make a difference in behavioral self-handicapping？Social Behavior and Personality, 33 (1), 43-56.
Charles, E. K., Emily, A. K., & Nan A. C. (1998). Development of self-handicapping tendencies. The Journal of Social Psychology, 138 (4), 524-535.
Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform. New York: Cambridge University Press.
DeGree, C. E., & Snyder, C .R. (1985). Adler's psychology (of Use) today: Personal History of traumatic life events as a self-handicapping strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1512-1519.
Deppe, R. K. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Self-handicapping and intrinsic motivation: Buffering Intrinsic Motivation From the Threat of failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70 (4), 868-876.
Garcia, T. (1995). The role of motivational strategies in self-regulated learning. New Directions for teaching and Learning, 63, 29-42.
Harris, R. N., & Snyder, C. R. (1986). The role of uncertain self-esteem in self-handicapping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(2), 451-458.
Hirt, E. R., Deppe, R. K., & Gordon, L. J. (1991). Self-reported versus behavior history of traumatic life events as a self-handicapping strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1512~1519.
Jeffrey, P. D. ,& Janet M. F. (2004). Association between students’ perceptions of mathematics classroom environment and self-handicapping in Australian and Canadian High Schools. McGill Journal of Education, 39 (1), 69-87.
Jones, E. E. & Berglas, S., & Jones, E. E. (1978). Drug choice as a self handicapping strategy in response to noncontingent success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 405-417.
Kelley, H. H & Michela, J. L. (1980). Attribution theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 457-501.
Kimble, C. E., Kimble, E. A., & Croy, N. A. (1998). Development of self-handicapping tendencies. Journal of Social Psychology, 138 (4), 524-534.
Kolditz, T. A., & Arkin, R. M. (1982). An impression management interpretation of self-handicapping strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 492-502.
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational Psychoogyl Measurement, 30 (3), 607-610.
Leary, M. R., & Shepperd, J. A. (1986). Behavioral self-handicaps versus self-reported self-handicaps: A conceptual note. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1265-1268.
Lewis, M. A., Cooney, J. B., Lewis, M A., & Cooney, J. B. (1986). Attributional and performance effects of competitive and individualistic feedback in computer assisted mathematics instruction. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (70th, San Francisco, CA, April 16-20).
Martin, A. J., March, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (2001). Self -handicapping and defensive pessimism: Exploring a model of predictors and outcomes from a self-protective perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93 (1), 87-102.
McCrea, H., McCrea S.M., & Hirt E.R. (2001). The role of ability judgments in self-handicapping, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1378-1389.
McLain, R. (1981). The postulate of adequacy: phenomenological sociology and the paradox of science and sociality. Human Studies, 4 (2), 105-130.
Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. (1995). Predictors of middle school students’ use of self-handicapping strategies. Journal of Early Adolescence, 15 (4), 389-411.
Midgley, C., Arunkumar, R., & Urdan, T. (1996). "If I don't do well tomorrow, there's a reason": Predictors of adolescents' use of academic self-handicapping strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 423-434.
Miller, D. T., & Ross M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82(2), 213-225.
Murray, C., & Warden, M. R. (1992). Implications of self-handicapping strategies for academic achievement: A reconceptionlization. Journal of Social Psychology. 132(1), 23-37.
Nicholls, J. G. (1975). Causal attribution and other achievement-related cognitions: Effects of task outcome, attainment value and sex. Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 379-389.
Nurmi, J., Onatsu, T., & Haavisto, T. (1995). Underachievers’ cognitive and behavioral strategies: Self-handicapping at school. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20, 188-200.
Pajares, F. & Miller, M. D. (1994). Role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: A pathanalysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(2), 193-203.
Rhodewalt, F. (1990). Self-handicappers: Individual differences in the preference for anticipatory, self-protective acts. In R. Higgins, C. Snyder, & S. Berglas (Eds.), Self-handicapping: The paradox that isn't (pp. 69-106). New York: Plenum Press.
Rhodewalt, F., & Davison, J. (1986). Self-handicapping and subsequent performance: Role of outcome valance and attributional certainty. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7, 307-323.
Riggs, J. M. (1992). Self-handicapping and achievement. In A. K. Boggiano & T. S. Pittman (Eds.), Achievement and motivation: A social-developmental perspective, 244-267. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Rotter, J.B. (1971). External control and internal control. Psychology Today, self-handicapping tendencies. Journal of Social Psychology, 138(4), 524-534.
Skaalvik, E. M. (1994). Attribution of perceived achievement in school in general and in math and verbal areas: Relations with academic self-concept and self-esteem. Birth Journal of Educational Psychology, 64, 133-143.
Skaalvik, E. M. (1997). Self-enhancing and Self-defeating ego orientations: Relations with task and avoidance orientation, achievement, self-perceptions, and anxiety. Journal of Education Psychology, 89, 71-81.
Smith, T. W., Snyder, C. R., & Handelsman, M. M. (1982). On the self-serving function of an academic wooden leg: Test anxiety as a self-handicapping strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 314- 321.
Snyder, C. R., & Smith, T. W. (1982). Symptoms as self-handicapping strategies: The virtues of old wine in a new bottle. In Weary, G., & Mirels, H. L. (Eds.), Integrations of Clinical and Social Psychology, New York, 104-127.
Sonia H. G., Darcy A. S., Richard T., & David C. Z. (2000). Adolescent self-handicapping, depressive affect, and maternal parenting styles. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29 (6), 631-647.
Stipek, D. J. (1984). Sex differences in children's attributions for success and failure on math and spelling tests. Sex Roles, 11 (11), 969-981.
Suzanne, W. & Susan, M. (2004). Excuses, Excuses: Self-Handicapping in an Australian Adolescent Sample. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33 (4), 271.
Ted T. & Anna R. (2001). Self-handicapping status, claimed self-handicaps and reduced practice effort following success and failure feedback. British Jounal of Educational Psychology ,71,151-170
Tice, D. M. (1991). Esteem protection or enhancement? Self-handicapping motives and attributions differ by trait self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 711-725.
Tice, D. M., and Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Self-esteem, self-handicapping, and self-presentation: The strategy of inadequate practice. J. Pers., 58, 443-464.
Weidner, G. (1980). Self-handicapping following learned helplessness treatment and the type A coronary-prone behavior pattern. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 24, 319-325.
Weiner, B., & Peter, N. (1973). A cognitive-developmental analysis of achievement and moral judgments. Developmental Psychology, 9(3), 290-309.
Weiner, B. (1972). Attribution theory, achievement motivation, and the educational process. Review of Educational Research, 42(2), 203-215.
Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71 (1), 3-25.
Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychology Review, 92, 548-573.
Zuckerman, M., Kieffer, S. C., & Knee, C. R. (1998). Consequence of self-handicapping: Effects on coping, academic performance and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (6), 1619-1628.