半導體化合物奈米線之合成、結構鑑定和物理性質研究

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研究生：	何志浩 jr-Hau He
論文名稱：	半導體化合物奈米線之合成、結構鑑定和物理性質研究 Synthesis, Structural Characterization, and Physical Properties of Semiconducting Compound Nanowires
指導教授：	陳力俊
口試委員:
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	工學院 - 材料科學工程學系 Materials Science and Engineering
論文出版年：	2005
畢業學年度：	94
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	170
中文關鍵詞：	氧化錫、氮化鋁、氧化鋅、奈米線、奈米柱
外文關鍵詞：	ZnO, SnO2, AlN, nanowire, nanorod
相關次數：	點閱：3 下載：0
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此篇論文以設計前瞻的奈米材料系統，利用其奈米的尺度與形狀，來探索其新穎材料特性與現象。此外，成長特殊奈米結構、摻雜技術、與奈米材料的控制成長技術亦是本文討論重點之一。

本論文涵蓋下列幾項奈米材料的合成、材料分析、場發射與放光特性研究：（1）矽鍺氧化物奈米線、（2）氧化錫奈米線、（3）氧化鋅奈米線、（4）氮化鋁奈米線。企圖發現其中的科學上的內涵並探索其中可能的工程應用。

The advance in modern material technology relies on the manipulation, functionalities, and controlled growth of atoms at surfaces. Understanding physical and chemical evolutions involved in the nanomaterial surfaces and interfaces is a key to the development of nanotechnology.

The central theme of this dissertation is the design and systematic exploration of advanced materials properties/phenomena as a function of size and dimensionality. New materials structures, the correlation of physical behaviors with the nanostructures (as a function of processing), doping, the nanomanipulation, controlled growth of nanomaterials and their applications in emerging nanotechnologies are emphasized.

In general, this thesis covers the synthesis and characterization of the following nanomaterials: (1) SiGe oxide nanowires, (2) SnO2 nanowires, (3) ZnO nanowires, and (4) AlN nanowires. Efforts have been made to understand the underlying science and to exploit their possible engineering applications.

Contents
Contents………………………………………………………………….I
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………...VI
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations…………………………….……IX
Abstract………………………………………………………………....XI

Chapter 1: Introduction to Nanotechnology
1    Nanotechnology…………………………………………………1
2    Self-Assembly……………………….………………………….3
3    Semiconducting Nanowires……………………………………..4
3.1     Si Oxide and SiGe Oxide Nanowires……………………...6
3.2     Tin Oxide Nanowires……………………………………...7
3.3     Zinc Oxide Nanowires…………………………………….8
3.4     Aluminum Nitride Nanowires……………………………..9
4    Growth of Nanowires…………………………………………...9
4.1 Synthesis Methods of Nanowires…………………………..9
4.1.1 Vapor-Solid Growth Mechanism…………………………9
4.1.2 Vapor-Liquid-Solid Growth Mechanism………………..10
4.1.3 Solution-Liquid-Solid Growth Mechanism……………..11
4.1.4 Oxide- Assisted Growth Mechanism……………………13
4.2 Controlled Growth of Nanowires…………………………14
5    Scope and Aim of the Thesis…………………………………..14

Chapter 2: Experimental Procedures
1    Deposition of Catalyst…………………………………………16
1.1 E-beam Deposition………………………………………16
1.2 Formation of Hexagonal Au Particle Networks…………16
2    Preparation of Samples for Transmission Electron Microscope Examination……………………………………………………18
2.1 Preparation of Planview Samples………………………..18
2.2 Cross-Sectional Specimen Preparation……….………….19
3    Transmission Electron Microscope Observation………………20
4    Scanning Electron Microscope Observation…………………..21
5    Energy Dispersive Spectrometer Analysis…………………….21
6    Electron Energy Loss Spectrometer Analysis…………………22
7    X-Ray Diffractometry…………………………………………22
8    Field Emission Measurement………………………………….22
9    Cathodoluminescence Analysis………………………………..23

Chapter 3: Synthesis of Blue-Light-Emitting Si1-xGex Oxide Nanowires
1    Introduction................................................................................25
2    Experimental Procedures………………………………………26
3    Results and Discussion………………………………………...27
4    Summary and Conclusions…………………………………….32

Chapter 4: Synthesis of Si-Ge Oxide Nanowires on Self-Assembled Gold Catalyst
1    Introduction……………………………………………………33
2    Experimental Procedures………………………………………34
3    Results and Discussion………………………………………...35
4    Summary and Conclusions…………………………………….38

Chapter 5: SnO2 Nanorods with Beak-Like Growth Front: Synthesis, Structure and Field-Emission Properties
1    Introduction……………………………………………………40
2    Experimental Procedures………………………………………41
3    Results and Discussion………………………………………...43
4    Summary and Conclusions…………………………………….48

Chapter 6: Polar Substrate Surface Induced Growth of Crossed ZnO Nanorod Networks
1     Introduction…………………………………………………….50
2     Experimental Procedures……………………………………….51
3     Results and Discussion…………………………………………52
4     Summary and Conclusions……………………………………..55

Chapter 7: Large-Scale Ni-doped ZnO Nanowire Arrays and Electrical and Optical Properties
1     Introduction…………………………………………………….56
2     Experimental Procedures……………………………………….57
3     Results and Discussion…………………………………………58
4     Summary and Conclusions……………………………………..60

Chapter 8: Pattern and Feature Designed Growth of ZnO Nanowire Arrays for Vertical Devices
1     Introduction…………………………………………………….61
2     Experimental Procedures……………………………………….62
3     Results and Discussion…………………………………………64
4     Summary and Conclusions……..………………………………67

Chapter 9: Aligned AlN Nanorods with Multi-Tipped Surfaces – Growth, Field Emission, and Cathodoluminescence Properties
1     Introduction…………………………………………………….69
2     Experimental Procedures……………………………………….70
3     Results and Discussion…………………………………………71
4     Summary and Conclusions……………………………………..76

Chapter 10: Summary and Conclusions
1     Synthesis of Blue-Light-Emitting Si1-xGex Oxide Nanowires..78
2     Synthesis of Si-Ge Oxide Nanowires on Self-Assembled Gold Catalyst. ……………………………………………………...78
3     SnO2 Nanorods with Beak-Like Growth Front: Synthesis, Structure and Field-Emission Properties……………………..79
4     Polar Substrate Surface Induced Growth of Crossed ZnO Nanorod Networks…………………………………………...80
5     Large-scale Ni-doped ZnO Nanowire Arrays and Electrical and Optical Properties…………………………………………….80
6     Pattern and Feature Designed Growth of ZnO Nanowire Arrays for Vertical Devices…………………………………………..81
7     Aligned AlN Nanorods with Multi-Tipped Surfaces – Growth, Field Emission, and Cathodoluminescence Propertie………..81

Chapter 11: Future Prospects
1     Pattern and Feature Designed Growth of Nanowire Arrays for Application in Nano-Scale Devices………………………….83
1.1 Growth of Nanowire Arrays on Individual Au Dot in Self-Assembled Hexagonal Au Dot Networks……………….83
1.2 Growth of Nanowire Arrays on the Catalyst Patterned by Nanosphere Lithography Process…………………………….84
1.3 Growth of Nanowire Arrays on the Catalyst Patterned by AFM nanomachining…………………………………………85
2     Growth of Modulation-Doped n- and p-type Nanowrie Arrays………………………………………………………...85
3     Growth of Modulation-Doped Nanowrie Arrays for Spintronics……………………………………………………86

References………………………………………………………………87
Figure Captions……………………………………………………….123
Figures………………………………………………………………...132
Publication List……………………………………………………….164
Curriculum Vitae………………………………………………..……170

                                

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Chapter 2
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Chapter 3
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8. Y. Cui and C. M. Lieber, “Functional Nanoscale Electronic Devices Assembled using Silicon Nanowire Building Blocks,” Science 291, 851-853 (2001).
9. L. J. Lauhon, M. S. Gudiksen, C. L. Wang, and C. M. Lieber, “Epitaxial Core-shell and Core-Multishell Nanowire Heterostructures, Nature 420, 57-61 (2002).
10. J. D. Holmes, K. P. Johnston, R. C. Doty, and B. A. Korgel, “Control of Thickness and Orientation of Solution-Grown Silicon Nanowires,” Science 287, 1471-1473 (2000).
11. D. P. Yu, Q. L. Hang, Y. Ding, H. Z. Zhang, Z. G. Bai, J. J. Wang, Y. H. Zou, W. Qian, G. C. Xiong, and S. Q. Feng, “Amorphous Silica Nanowires: Intensive Blue Light Emitters,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3076-3078 (1998).
12. J. Q. Hu, Y. Jiang, X. M. Meng, C. S. Lee, and S. T. Lee, “ A Simple Large-Scale Synthesis of Very Long Aligned Silica Nanowires,“ Chem. Phys. Lett. 367, 339-343 (2003).
13. M. H. Huang, S. Mao, H. Feick, H. Yan, Y. Wu, H. Kind, E. Weber, R. Russo, and P. Yang, ”Room-Temperature Ultraviolet Nanowire Nanolasers,” Science 292, 1897-1899 (2001).
14. H. F. Zhang, C. M. Wang, E. C. Buck, and L. S. Wang, “Synthesis, Characterization, and Manipulation of Helical SiO2 Nanosprings,“ Nano Lett. 3, 577-580 (2003).
15. W. I. Park, G. C. Yi, M. Kim, and S. J. Pennycook, “Quantum Confinement Observed in ZnO/ZnMgO Nanorod Heterostructures,” Adv. Mater. 15, 526-529 (2003).
16. J. Y. Lao, J. Y. Huang, D. Z. Wang, and Z. F. Ren, “ZnO Nanobridges and Nanonails,” Nano Lett. 3, 235-238 (2003).
17. Z. R. R. Tian, J. A. Voigt, J. Liu, B. Mckenzie, and M. J. Mcdermott, “Biommetic Arrays of Oriented Helical ZnO Nanorods and Columns,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124, 12954-12955 (2002).
18. H. Q. Yan, R. R. He, J. Johnson, M. Law, R. J. Saykally, and P. D. Yang, “Dendritic Nanowire Ultraviolet Laser Array,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 4728-4729 (2003).
19. H. Q. Yan, R. R. He, J. Pham, and P. D. Yang, “Morphogenesis of One-dimensional ZnO Nano- and Microcrystals,” Adv. Mater. 15, 402-405 (2003).
20. J. Y. Lao, J. G. Wen, and Z. F. Ren, “Hierarchical ZnO Nanostructures,” Nano Lett. 2, 1287-1291 (2002).
21. Z. W. Pan, Z. R. Dai, and Z. L. Wang, “Nanobelts of Semiconducting Oxides,” Science 291, 1947-1949 (2001).
22. Z. L. Wang, “Nanobelts, Nanowires, and Nanodiskettes of Semiconducting Oxides - From Materials to Nanodevices,” Adv. Mater. 15, 432-436 (2003).
23. Z. R. Dai, Z. W. Pan, and Z. L. Wang, “Novel Nanostructures of Functional Oxides Synthesized by Thermal Evaporation,” Adv. Funct. Mater. 13, 9-24 (2003).
24. Z. L. Wang and Z. C. Kang, Functional and Smart Materials (Plenum, New York 1998).
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Chapter 4
1. Z. L. Wang, Nanowires and Nanobelts (Kluwer Academic, Boston, 2003), Vols. I
2. Z. L. Wang, Nanowires and Nanobelts (Kluwer Academic, Boston, 2003), Vols. II
3. Z. L. Wang and Z. C. Kang, Functional and Smart Materials (Plenum, New York, 1998)
4. Z. R. Dai, Z. W. Pan, and Z. L. Wang, “Novel Nanostructures of Functional Oxides Synthesized by Thermal Evaporation,” Adv. Funct. Mater. 13, 9-24 (2003).
5. Z. L. Wang, “Functional oxide nanobelts: Materials, Properties and Potential Applications in Nanosystems and Biotechnology,” Annual Rev. Phy. Chem. 55, 159-196 (2004).
6. Y. G. Wang, A. Z. Jin, and Z. Zhang, “Cu/SiO2-x Nanowires with Compositional Modulation Structure Grown via Thermal Evaporation,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 4425-4427 (2002).
7. J. L. Gole, J. D. Stout, W. L. Rauch, and Z. L. Wang, “Direct Synthesis of Silicon Nanowires, Silica Nanospheres, and Wire-like Nanosphere Agglomerates,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 2346-2348 (2000).
8. Y. Q. Zhu, W. K. Hsu, M. Terrones, N. Grobert, H. Terrones, J. P. Hare, H. W. Kroto, and D. R. M. Walton, “3D Silicon Oxide Nanostructures: from Nanoflowers to Radiolaria,” J. Mater. Chem. 8, 1859-1864 (1998).
9. J. S. Wu, S. Dhara, C. T. Wu, K. H. Chen, Y. F. Chen, and L. C. Chen, “Growth and Optical Properties of Self-organized Au2Si Nanospheres Pea-podded in a Silicon Oxide Nanowire,” Adv. Mater. 14, 1847-1850 (2002).
10. D. P. Yu, Q. L. Hang, Y. Ding, H. Z. Zhang, Z. G. Bai, J. J. Wang, Y. H. Zou, W. Qian, G. C. Xiong, and S. Q. Feng, “Amorphous Silica Nanowires: Intensive Blue Light Emitters,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3076-3078 (1998).
11. J. Q. Hu, Y. Jiang, X. M. Meng, C. S. Lee, and S. T. Lee, “A Simple Large-scale Synthesis of Very Long Aligned Silica Nanowires,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 367, 339-343 (2003).
12. X. D. Wang, C. J. Summers, and Z. L. Wang, “Large-scale Hexagonal-Patterned Growth of Aligned ZnO Nanorods for Nano-Optoelectronics and Nanosensor Arrays,” Nano Lett. 4, 423-426 (2004).
13. J. W. P. Hsu, Z. R. Tian, N. C. Simmons, C. M. Matzke, J. A. Voigt, and J. Liu, “Directed Spatial Organization of Zinc Oxide Nanorods,” Nano Lett. 5, 83-86 (2005).
14. J. H. He, W. W. Wu, S. W. Lee, L. J. Chen, Y. L. Chueh, and L. J. Chou, “Synthesis of Blue-Light-Emitting Si1-xGex Oxide Nanowires,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 263109 (2005).
15. J. Fink, C. J. Kiely, D. Bethell, D. J. Schiffrin, “Self-organization of Nanosized Gold Particles,” Chem. Mater. 10, 922-926 (1998).
16. J. C. Hu, P. Y. Su, V. Lapeyronie, S. L. Cheng, M. Y. Lin, and L. J. Chen, “Self-Assembled Au Nanoparticle Superlattice via A Displacement Reaction,” J. Electron. Mater. 33, 1058-1063 (2004)
17. P. Y. Su, J. C. Hu, S. L. Cheng, L. J. Chen, and J. M. Liang, “Self-Assembled Hexagonal Au Particle Networks on Silicon from Au Nanoparticle Solution,” Appl. Phy. Lett. 84, 3480-3482 (2004)
18. P. S. Shah, M. B. Sigman, Jr., C. A. Stowell, K. T. Lim, K. P. Johnston, and B. A. Korgel, “Single-Step Self-organization of Ordered Macroporous Nanocrystal Thin Films,” Adv. Mater. 15, 971-974 (2003).
19. J. N. O’Shea, M. A. Philips, M. D. R. Taylor, P. Moriarty, M. Brust, and V. R. Dhanak, “Colloidal Particle Foams: Templates for Au Nanowire Networks?,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 5039-5041 (2002)
20. C. R. Chen and L. J. Chen, “Structural Evolution and Atomic Structure of Ultrahigh Vacuum Deposited Au Thin Films on Silicon at Low Temperatures,” Appl. Sur. Sci. 92, 507-512 (1996).
21. A. Prince, G. V. Raynor, and D.S. Evans, Phase Diagrams of Ternary Gold Alloys (Institute of Metals, London, 1990)
22. J. H. He, Y. L. Chueh, W. W. Wu, S. W. Lee, L. J. Chen and L. J. Chou, “The Growth of SiGe Quantum Rings in Au Thin Films on Epitaxial SiGe on Silicon,” Thin Solid Films 469, 478-482 (2004)
23. J. H. He, W. W. Wu, Y. L. Chueh, C. L. Hsin, L. J. Chen and L. J. Chen, “Fabrication and Evolution of Self-Assembled Crystalline Si Quantum Rings on (001)Si Mediated by Au Nanodots,” unpublished work.
24. Z. W. Pan, Z. R. Dai, C. Ma, and Z. L. Wang, “Molten Gallium as a Catalyst for the Large-Scale Growth of Highly Aligned Silica Nanowires,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124, 1817-1822 (2002)

Chapter 5
1. Z. L. Wang, Ed. Nanowires and Nanobelts, Vol. I: Metal and Semiconductor, Nanowires; Kluwer Academic Publisher: New York, 2003.
2. Z. L. Wang, Ed. Nanowires and Nanobelts, Vol. II: Nanowires and Nanobelts of Functional Materials; Kluwer Academic Publisher: New York, 2003.
3. Z. L. Wang, Z. C. Kang, Functional and Smart Materials, Plenum, New York 1998.
4. S. Ferrere, A. Zaban, and B. A. Gsegg, “Dye Sensitization of Nanocrystalline Tin Oxide by Perylene Derivatives,” J. Phys. Chem. B, 101, 4490-4493 (1997).
5. E. Comini, V. Guidi, C. Malagu, G. Martinelli, Z. Pan, G. Sberveglieri, and Z. L. Wang, “Electrical Properties of Tin Dioxide Two-Dimensional Nanostructures,” J. Phys. Chem. B 108, 1882-1887 (2004).
6. S. Mathur, S. Barth, H. Shen, J. C. Pyun, and U. Werner, “Size-Dependent Photoconductance in SnO2 Nanowires,” Small 1, 713-717 (2005).
7. Y. Zhang, A. Kolmakov, S. Chretien, H. Metiu, and M. Moskovits, ”Control of Catalytic Reactions at the Surface of a Metal Oxide Nanowire by Manipulating Electron Density Inside It,” Nano Lett. 4, 403-407 (2004).
8. E. Comini, G. Faglia, G. Sberveglieri, Z. W. Pan, and Z. L. Wang, “Stable and Highly Sensitive Gas Sensors Based on Semiconducting Oxide Nanobelts,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1869-1871 (2002).
9. Z. L. Wang, “Nanobelts, Nanowires and Nanodiskettes of Semiconducting Oxides – from Materials to Nanodevices,” Adv. Mater. 15, 432-436 (2003).
10. Z. R. Dai, J. L. Gole, J. D. Stout, and Z. L. Wang, “Tin Oxide Nanowires, Nanoribbons, and Nanotubes,” J. Phys. Chem. B 106, 1274-1279 (2002).
11. Y. Liu, J. Dong, and M. Liu, “Well-Aligned Nano-Box-Beams of SnO2,” Adv. Mater. 16, 353-356 (2004).
12. Z. W. Pan, Z. R. Dai, and Z. L. Wang, “Nanobelts of Semiconducting Oxides”Science 291, 1947-1949 (2001).
13. J. Q. Hu, Y. Bando, Q. L. Liu, and D. Golberg, “Laser-Ablation Growth and Optical Properties of Wide and Long Single-Crystal SnO2 Ribbons,” Adv. Funct. Mater. 13, 493-496 (2003).
14. S. V. Khare, S. Kodambaka, D. D. Jonson, I. Petrov, and J. E. Greene, “Determining Absolute Orientation-dependent Step Energies: A General Theory for the Wulff-Construction and for Anisotropic Two-dimensional Island Shape Fluctuations,” Surf. Sci. 522, 75-83 (2003).
15. G. Wulff and Z. Kristallogr, “Velocity of Growth and Dissolution of Crystal Faces,” Mineral. 34, 449-530 (1901).
16. Beltrán, J. Andrés, E. Longo, and E. R. Leite, “Thermodynamic Argument About SnO2 Nanoribbon Growth,”Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 635-637 (2003).
17. J. Oviedo and M. J. Gillan,“Energetics and Structure of Stoichiometric SnO2 Surfaces Studied by First-principles Calculations,” Surf. Sci. 463, 93-101 (2000).
18. B. Slater, C. R. Catlow, D. H. Gay, D. E. Williams, and V. Dusastre, “Study of Surface Segregation of Antimony on SnO2 Surfaces by Cmputer Simulation Techniques,” J. Phys. Chem. B 103, 10644-10650 (1999)
19. A. M. Rao, D. Jacques, R. C. Haddon, W. Zhu, C. Bower, and S. Jin, “In Situ-Grown Carbon Nanotube Array with Excellent Field Emission Characteristics,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 3813-3815 (2000).
20. Z. W. Pan, H. L. Lai, F. C. K. Au, X. F. Duan, W. Y. Zhou, W. S. Shi, N. Wang, C. S. Lee, N. B. Wong, S. T. Lee, and S. S. Xie, “Oriented Silicon Carbide Nanowires: Synthesis and Field Emission Properties,” Adv. Mater. 12, 1186-1190 (2000).
21. E. J. Chi, J. Y. Shim, H. K. Baik, and S. M. Lee, “Fabrication of Amorphous-carbon-nitride Field Emitters,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 324-327 (1997).
22. T. Sugino, S. Kawasaki, K. Tanioka, and J. Shirafuji, “Electron Emission from Boron Nitride Coated Si Field Emitters,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2704-2706 (1997).
23. Y. B. Li, Y. Bando, D. Golberg, and K. Kurashima, “Field Emission From MoO3 Nanobelts”Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 5048-5050 (2002)
24. C. J. Lee, T. J. Lee, S. C. Lyu, Y. Zhang, H. Ruh, and H. J. Lee, “Field Emission from Well-Aligned Zinc Oxide Nanowires Grown at Low Temperature,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 3648-3650 (2002)
25. Y. K. Tseng, C. J. Huang, H. M. Cheng, I. N. Lin, K. S. Liu, and I. C. Chen, “Characterization and Field-Emission Properties of Needle-Like Zinc Oxide Nanowires Grown Vertically on Conductive Zinc Oxide Films,” Adv. Funct. Mater. 13, 811-814 (2003).
26. J. Chen, S. Z. Deng, N. S. Xu, S. Wang, X. Wen, S. Yang, C. Yang, J. Wang, and W. Ge, “Field Emission from Crystalline Copper Sulphide Nanowire Arrays,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 3620-3622 (2002).
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Chapter 6
1. Z. L. Wang (Ed.), Nanowires and Nanobelts – Materials, Properties and Devices, Metal and Semiconductor Nanowires, vol. I, Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, 2003.
2. Z. L. Wang (Ed.), Nanowires and Nanobelts – Materials, Properties and Devices, Nanowires and Nanobelts of Functional Materials, vol. II, Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, 2003.
3. E. Comini, G. Faglia, G. Sberveglieri, Z. W. Pan, and Z. L. Wang, “Stable and Highly Sensitive Gas Sensors Based on Semiconducting Oxide Nanobelts,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1869-1871 (2002).
4. M. H. Huang, S. Mao, H. Feick, H. Yan, Y. Wu, H. Kind, E. Weber, R. Russo, and P. D. Yang, “Room-temperature Ultraviolet Nanowire Nanolasers,” Science 292, 1897-1899 (2001).
5. J. Hu, T. W. Odom, and C. M. Liber, “Chemistry and Physics in One Dimension: Synthesis and Properties of Nanowires and Nanotubes,” Acc. Chem. Res. 32, 435-445 (1999).
6. C. Yu, Q. Hao, S. Saha, L. Shi, X. Y. Kong, and Z. L. Wang, “Integration of Metal Oxide Nanobelts with Microsystems for Nerve Agent Detection,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 063101 (2005).
7. Z. L. Wang, X. Y. Kong, and J. M. Zuo, “Induced Growth of Asymmetric Nanocantilever Arrays on Polar Surfaces,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 91, 185502 (2003).
8. P. X. Gao and Z. L. Wang, “Self-Assembled Nanowire-Nanoribbon Junction Arrays of ZnO,” J. Phys. Chem. B 106, 12653-12658 (2002).
9. J. Y. Lao, J. G. Wen, and Z. F. Ren, “Hierarchical ZnO Nanostructures,” Nano Lett. 2, 1287-1291 (2002).
10. X. Y. Kong and Z. L. Wang, “Spontaneous Polarization-induced Nanohelixes, Nanosprings, and Nanorings of Piezoelectric Nanobelts,” Nano Lett. 3, 1625-1631 (2003).
11. X. Y. Kong and Z. L. Wang, “Polar-Surface Dominated ZnO Nanobelts and the Electrostatic Energy Induced Nanohelixes/Nanosprings,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 975-977 (2004).
12. X. Y. Kong, Y. Ding, R. S. Yang, and Z. L. Wang, “Single-Crystal Nanorings Formed by Epitaxial Self-coiling of Polar-nanobelts,” Science 303, 1348-1351 (2004).
13. W. L. Hughes and Z. L. Wang, “Formation of Piezoelectric Single-Crystal Nanorings and Nanobows,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 6703-6709 (2004).
14. Y. Cui and C. M. Lieber, “Functional Nanoscale Electronic Devices Assembled using Silicon Nanowire Building Blocks,” Science 291, 851-853 (2001).
15. Z. L. Wang and Z. W. Pan, “Junctions and Networks of SnO Nanoribbons,” Adv. Mater. 14, 1029-1032 (2002).
16. X. X. Cao, Y. Xie, and L. Li, “Spontaneous Organization of Three-dimensionally Packed Trigonal Selenium Microspheres into Large-area Nanowire Networks,” Adv. Mater. 15, 1914-1918 (2003).
17. A. Tao, F. Kim, C. Hess, J. Goldberger, R He, Y. Sun, Y. Xia, and P. D. Yang, “Langmuir-Blodgett Silver Nanowire Monolayers for Molecular Sensing using Surface-enhanced Raman Spectroscopy,” Nano Lett. 3. 1229-1233 (2003).
18. A. M. Cassell, G. C. McCool, H. T. Ng, J. E. Koehne, B. Chen, J. Li, J. Han, and M. Meyyappan, “Carbon Nanotube Networks by Chemical Vapor Deposition,” Appl, Phys. Lett. 82, 817-819 (2003).
19. Y. Huang, X. F. Duan, Q. Q. Wei and C. M. Lieber, “Directed Assembly of One-Dimensional Nanostructures into Functional Networks,” Science 291, 630-633 (2001).
20. B. Yang, M. S. Marcus, D. G. Keppel, P. P. Zhang, Z. W. Li, B. J. Larson, D. E. Savage, J. M. Simmons, O. M. Castellini, M. A. Eriksson, and M. G. Lagallya, “Template-Directed Carbon Nanotube Network using Self-organized Si Nanocrystals,” Appl, Phys. Lett. 86, 263107 (2005).
21. M. R. Diehl, S. N. Yaliraki, R. A. Beckman, M. B. James and R. Heath, “Self-Assembled, Deterministic Carbon Nanotube Wiring Networks,” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 41, 353-356 (2002).
22. S. P. Ge, K. L. Jiang, X. X. Lu, Y. F. Chen, R. M. Wang, and S. S. Fan, “Orientation-Controlled Growth of Single-Crystal Silicon-Nanowire Arrays,” Adv. Mater. 17, 56-61 (2005).

Chapter 7
1. C. R. Gorla, N. W. Emanetoglu, S. Liang, W. E. Mayo, Y. Lu, M. Wraback, and H. Shen, “Structural, Optical, and Surface Acoustic Wave Properties of Epitaxial ZnO Films Grown on Sapphire by Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition,” J. Appl. Phys. 85, 2595-2602 (1999).
2. T. Shibata, K. Unno, E. Makino, Y. Ito, and S. Shimada, “Micromachining of Diamond Probes for Atomic Force Microscopy Applications,” Sens. Actuators, A 102, 106-113 (2002).
3. S. C. Minne, S. R. Manalis, and C. F. Quate, “Parallel Atomic Force Microscopy Using Cantilevers with Integrated Piezoresistive Sensors and Integrated Piezoelectric Actuators,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3918-3920 (1995).
4. H. Kind, H. Q. Yan, B. Messer, M. Law, and P. D. Yang, “Nanowire Ultraviolet Photodetectors and Optical Switches,” Adv. Mater. 14, 158-160 (2002).
5. M. H. Huang, S. Mao, H. Feick, H. Yan, Y. Wu, H. Kind, E. Weber, R. Russo, and P. D. Yang, “Room-Temperature Ultraviolet Nanowire Nanolasers,” Science 292, 1897-1899 (2001).
6. Z. L. Wang, “Zinc Oxide Nanostructures: Growth, Properties and Applications,” J. Phys.: Condens. Mater. 16, R829-R858 (2004).
7. J. Zhong, S. Muthukumar, Y. Chen, Y. Lua, H. M. Ng, W. Jiang, and E. L. Garfunkel “Ga-Doped ZnO Single-crystal Nanotips Grown on Fused Silica by Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 3401-3403 (2003).
8. H. J. Choi, H. K. Seong, J. Y. Chang, K. Lee, Y. J. Park, J. J. Kim, S. K. Lee, R. R. He, T. Kuykendall, and P. D. Yang, “Single-Crystalline Diluted Magnetic Semiconductor GaN:Mn Nanowires,” Adv. Mater. 17, 1351-1356 (2005).
9. G. F. Zheng, W. Lu, S. Jin, and C. M. Lieber, “Synthesis and Fabrication of High-performance N-Type Silicon Nanowire Transistors,” Adv. Mater. 16, 1890-1893 (2004).
10. J. G. Wen, J. Y. Lao, D. Z. Wang, T. M. Kyaw, Y. L. Foo, and Z. F. Ren, “Self-assembly of Semiconducting Oxide Nanowires, Nanorods, and Nanoribbons,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 372, 717-722 (2003).
11. Z. H. Zhong, Q. Qian, D. L. Wang, and C. M. Lieber, “Synthesis of P-Type Gallium Nitride Nanowires for Electronic and Photonic Nanodevices,” Nano Lett. 3, 343-346 (2003).
12. R. Cebulla, R. Wendt, and K. Ellmer, “Al-doped Zinc Oxide Films Deposited by Simultaneous RF and DC Excitation of A Magnetron Plasma: Relationships between Plasma Parameters and Structural and Electrical Film Properties,” J. Appl. Phys. 83, 1087-1095 (1998).
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14. R. P. Wang, A. W. Sleight, and D. Cleary, “High Conductivity in Gallium-doped Zinc Oxide Powders,” Chem. Mater. 8, 433-439 (1996).
15. A. E. Jiménez-González, “Modification of ZnO Thin Films by Ni, Cu, and Cd Doping,” J. Solid State Chem. 128, 176-180 (1997).
16. A. C. Wang, J. Y. Dai, J. Z. Cheng, M. P. Chudzik, T. J. Marks, R. P. H. Chang, and C. R. Kannewurf, “Charge Transport, Optical Transparency, Microstructure, and Processing Relationships in Transparent Conductive Indium-zinc Oxide Films Grown by Low-Pressure Metal-organic Chemical Vapor Deposition,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 327-329 (1998).
17. I. G. Brown, J. E. Gavin, and R. A. MacGill, “High-Current Ion-source,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 358-360 (1985).
18. R. S. Wagner and W. C. Ellis, “Vapor-Liquid-Solid Mechanism of Single Crystal Growth,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 4, 89-91 (1964).
19. X. D. Wang, C. J. Summers, and Z. L. Wang, “Large-Scale Hexagonal-Patterned Growth of Aligned ZnO Nanorods for Nano-optoelectronics and Nanosensor Arrays,” Nano Lett. 4, 423-426 (2004).
20. T. Monteiro, C. Boemare, M. J. Soares, E. Rita, and E. Alves, “Photoluminescence and Damage Recovery Studies in Fe-implanted ZnO Single Crystals,” J. Appl. Phys. 93, 8995-9000 (2003).
21. E. Sonder, R. A. Zuhr, and R. E. Valiga, “Annealing of Damage and Stability of Implanted Ions in ZnO Crystals,” J. Appl. Phys. 64, 1140-1144 (1988).
22. D. J. Qiu, H. Z. Wu, A. M. Feng, Y. F. Lao, N. B. Chen, and T. N. Xu, “Annealing Effects on The Microstructure and Photoluminescence Properties of Ni-doped ZnO Films,” Appl. Sur. Sci. 222, 263-268 (2004).
23. Q. H. Li, Q. Wan, Y. X. Liang, and T. H. Wang, “Electronic Transport through Individual ZnO Nanowires,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4556-4558 (2004).

Chapter 8
1. K. Kempa, B. Kimball, J. Rybczynski, Z. P. Huang, P. F. Wu, D. Steeves, M. Sennett, M. Giersig, D. V. G. L. N. Rao, D. L. Carnahan, D. Z. Wang, J. Y. Lao, W. Z. Li, and Z. F. Ren, “Photonic Crystals Based on Periodic Arrays of Aligned Carbon Nanotubes,” Nano Lett. 3, 13-18 (2003).
2. X. D. Wang, C. J. Summers, and Z. L. Wang, “Large-scale Hexagonal-Patterned Growth of Aligned ZnO Nanorods for Nano-Optoelectronics and Nanosensor Arrays,” Nano Lett. 4, 423-426 (2004).
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Chapter 9
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Chapter 11
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