本研究主要目的在探討故事情境及手勢對幼兒使用空間概念解決二因素空間問題能力的影響。本研究共分為兩個研究，研究一在探討有無故事情境對幼兒使用空間概念解決二因素空間問題能力的影響，共有178名4~6歲幼兒參與，利用自編「幼兒空間問題解決作業」瞭解4~6歲幼兒解決二因素空間問題的表現差異。結果顯示，故事情境有助於幼兒二因素空間問題解決能力，5歲組與6歲組幼兒解決二因素空間問題的表現顯著高於4歲組幼兒。研究二在故事情境中加入「手勢加語言」以及「語言」兩種策略，探討這些策略對幼兒解決二因素空間問題表現的影響。共有180位4~6歲幼兒參與研究。本研究利用自編「幼兒空間問題解決作業」找出無法解決的二因素空間問題的幼兒，之後將這些幼兒隨機分配至「手勢加語言組」或「語言組」。結果顯示，「手勢加語言」的策略顯著的提升幼兒二因素空間問題能力的表現。

The purposes of this study were to investigate the effects of story context and gestures on young children's spatial concept. Study 1 examined the effect of story context on young children’s ability to resolve spatial problems with two dimensions. 178 4- to 6-year-old children took part in study 1. Result revealed story context could improve the performance of young children’s two dimemsions spatial problem-solving. Study 2 further investigated two strategies「the influence of gesture intervention on 4 to 6-year-old children’s ability to resolve spatial problems with two dimensions. 180 4- to 6-year-old children completed the two dimemsions spatial problem-solving task and were assigned randomly to group 1(gesture with explaining) and group 2(explaining only). Result showed the intervention of gesture with explaining would improve young children’s ability to resolve spatial problems with two dimensions.

中文
孔逸帆（2011）。手勢溝通介入方案對無口語自閉症。國立東華大學特殊教育學系碩士論文，花蓮縣。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/7a66hd
王文科（1994）。課程與教學論。台北市：五南。
方淑貞（2010）。FUN的教學:圖畫書與語文教學。新北市：心理
丘嘉慧（2008）。不同教學介入對幼兒知識表徵轉變的影響-以幼兒科學問題解決歷程為例。國立政治大學教育學系幼兒教育組博士論文，台北市。
丘嘉慧、柯華葳（2014）。幼兒科學及數概念發展研究回顧。應用心理研究，61, 153-202
丘嘉慧、柯華葳（2018）。認知領域。載於幸曼玲等著，新課綱想說的事：幼兒園教保活動課程大綱的理念與發展（第二版）（頁145-218）。新北市:心理
余純美（2013）。多媒體教學對國小高年級學童空間定位能力之研究。國立臺北教育大學數學暨資訊教育學系碩士論文，台北市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/sud548
李奉儒、高淑清、鄭瑞隆、林麗菊、吳芝儀、洪志成、蔡清田（譯）（2001）。R.C.Bogan, & S.K.Biken著。質性教育研究:理論與方法。嘉義市:濤石。
周淑惠（1997）。幼兒數學新論-教材教法。新北市：心理
林玉霞，楊熾康，童寶娟，曾怡惇，王淑娟，吳咸蘭，鍾莉娟，葉麗莉，郭令育（譯）（2018）。Robert E. Owens Jr著。語言發展導論（Language Development: an Introduction, 9th ed.）。台北市:華滕。
林郁宏（2009）。立體書對幼童空間方位學習成效研究。崑山科技大學視覺傳達設計所碩士論文，台南市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/9h7nvz。
林敏宜（2004）。圖畫書的欣賞與應用。台北市:心理。
林紫涵（2018）。摺紙教學活動介入對幼兒視覺區辨及空間方位之影響。國立台中教育大學幼兒教育學系碩士論文，台中市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/3eepwy
林逸農（2006）。五連方幾何積木課程對國小學童視覺空間能力的影響。國立台灣科技大學技術及職業教育研究所，台北市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/7vyk5y
林嘉綏、李丹玲（2001）。幼兒數學教材教法。台北市：五南。
洪文東（2007，5月）。幼年期兒童的空間概念。載於美和技術學院舉辦之「南台灣 2007 幼兒保育學術研討會」論文集（頁168-193），屏東縣。
洪文東（2011）。空間主題教學活動對幼兒空間概念學習與認知之影響。美和學報，30（1），125-146。
洪文東、黃慧娟、吳玲綺（2009）。幼兒空間主題科學活動觀察與個別晤談分析:以屏東縣某托兒所及高雄市某幼稚園為例。幼兒保育學刊，7，79-93。
洪堯群（2000）。故事講述與討論對幼兒助人意願與利社會道德推理之影響。國立臺灣師範大學家政教育研究所，台北市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/4fvu88
洪蘭（2004）。歡樂學習，理所當然。台北市:天下文化。
張妙君（2000）。以圖畫故事書進行國小一年級提早寫作教學歷程之研究。國立新竹教育大學台灣語言與語文教育研究所，新竹市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/t4my9u
教育部（1987）。幼稚園課程標準。台北市:教育部
教育部（2017）。幼兒園教保活動課程大綱。台北市:教育部
許明陽、鄧國雄、卓娟秀、李昆山、殷炯盛（1994）。國小學童方向及位置兩空間概念認知發展研究。台北市立師範學院學報，25，91-120。
陳美姿（2000）。以兒童繪本進行幼兒情感教育之行動研究。國立東華大學教育研究所，花蓮縣。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/369335
陳埩淑（2005）。教小一辨左右前空間概念教學之研究。台中教育大學學報，19（2），53-68。
陳淑敏（2006）。如何引導幼兒閱讀故事書。屏東教育大學報，24，41-60。
陳幗眉（2018）。幼兒心理學（二版）。台北市:五南
陳麗美（2012）。數學實驗教學對幼兒學習空間概念及關係邏輯影響之研究。中州科技大學工程技術研究所碩士論文，彰化縣。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/zbt874
蔡坤龍（1991）幼兒數學教教學法。高雄市：蔡坤龍
蔡淑媖（2012）。為孩子說故事:大聲讀給寶寶聽。台北市: 天衛。
蔣家唐（1995）。視覺空間認知能力向度分析暨數理-語文資優生視覺空間認知能力差異研究.行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計劃成果報告, NSC84-2511-S-018-003.
鄧玉真（2011）。童話故事融入國小音樂課程之行動研究。國立台北藝術大學藝術與人文教育研究所，台北市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/qr9zq
鄭淑榮（2009）。幼兒空間概念發展之研究。致遠管理學院（現為台灣首府大學）幼兒教育碩士論文，台南市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/f4h4k4
蕭愛霖（2014）。圍棋活動對幼兒空間能力及專注力的影響。國立臺灣師範大學人類發展與家庭學系幼兒發展與教育組碩士論文，台北市。取自https://hdl.handle.net/11296/4uy2u9
簡馨瑩、連啟舜（2014）。教師手勢對幼兒故事詞彙理解影響之研究。教育科學研究期刊，59（2）, 61-88。

英文
Attwood, A., Frith, U., & Hermelin, B. (1988). The understanding and use of interpersonal gestures by autistic and Down's syndrome children.Journal of autism and developmental disorders,18(2), 241-257.
Austin, E. E., & Sweller, N. (2014). Presentation and production: The role of gesture in spatial communication. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 122, 92-103
Behne, T., Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Twelve‐month‐olds’ comprehension and production of pointing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 30(3), 359-375
Capone, N. C., & McGregor, K. K. (2004). Gesture development. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 173-186
Casey, B. M., Andrews, N., Schindler, H., Kersh, J. E., Samper, A., & Copley, J. (2008). The development of spatial skills through interventions involving block building activities.Cognition and Instruction,26(3), 269-309.
Casey, B., Erkut, S., Ceder, I., & Young, J. M. (2008). Use of a storytelling context to improve girls' and boys' geometry skills in kindergarten. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(1), 29-48.
Catling, S. J. (1978). The child's spatial conception and geographic education.Journal of Geography,77(1), 24-28.
Colletta, J. M., Pellenq, C., & Guidetti, M. (2010). Age-related changes in co-speech gesture and narrative: Evidence from French children and adults. Speech Communication, 52(6), 565-576.
Driskell, J. E., & Radtke, P. H. (2003). The effect of gesture on speech production and comprehension. Human Factors, 45(3), 445-454.
Flevares, L. M., & Perry, M. (2001). How many do you see? The use of non-spoken representation in first-grade mathematics lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 330-345.
Gardner, H. (1987). The theory of multiple intelligences. Annals of Dyslexia, 37(1), 19-35.
Gauvain, M., & Rogoff, B. (1989). Collaborative problem solvingand the development of children’s planning skills. Developmental Psychology, 25, 139-151
Göksun, T., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2010). How do preschoolers express cause in gesture and speech? Cognitive Development, 25(1), 56-68.
Goldin-Meadow, S., Nusbaum, H., Kelly, S. D., & Wagner, S. (2001). Explaining math: Gesturing lightens the load. Psychological Science, 12(6), 516-522.
Guttman, R., Epstein, E. E., Amir, M., & Guttman, L. (1990). A structural theory of spatial abilities. Applied Psychological Measurement, 14(3), 217-236.
Halford, G. S., Andrews, G., Dalton, C., Boag, C., & Zielinski, T. (2002). Young children's performance on the balance scale: The influence of relational complexity. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 81(4), 417-445.
Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., & Phillips, S. (1998). Processing capacity defined by relational complexity: Implications for comparative, developmental, and cognitive psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 803-831.
Hart, R. A., & Moore, G. T. (1973).The development of spatial cognition: A review. AldineTransaction.
Herman, J. F., & Roth, S. F. (1984). Children's incidental memory for spatial locations in a large-scale environment: Taking a tour down memory lane.Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 30 (1), 87-102.
Hostetter, A. B., Alibali, M. W., & Kita, S. (2007). I see it in my hands’ eye: Representational gestures reflect conceptual demands. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22(3), 313-336.
Hostetter, A. B., Bieda, K., Alibali, M. W., Nathan, M. J., & Knuth, E. J. (2006). Don’t just tell them, show them! Teachers can intentionally alter their instructional gestures. In Proceedings of The 28th Annual Conference of The Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1523-1528). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kelly, S. D., Manning, S. M., & Rodak, S. (2008). Gesture gives a hand to language and learning:Perspectives from cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology and education. Language and Linguistics Compass, 2(4), 569-588.
Kersh, J., Casey, B. M., & Young, J. M. (2008). Research on spatial skills and block building in girls and boys. Contemporary Perspectives on Mathematics in Early Childhood Education, 233-251.
Kita, S. (2000). How representational gestures help speaking. Language and gesture, 1, 162-185.
Kita, S., Alibali, M. W., & Chu, M. (2017). How do gestures influence thinking and speaking? The gesture-for-conceptualization hypothesis. Psychological Review, 124(3), 245.
Klahr, D. (1985). Solving problems with ambiguous subgoal ordering: Preschoolers' performance. Child Development, 940-952.
Krehm, M., Onishi, K. H., & Vouloumanos, A. (2014). I see your point: Infants under 12 months understand that pointing is communicative. Journal of Cognition and Development, 15(4), 527-538.
Lazaraton, A. (2004). Gesture and speech in the vocabulary explanations of one ESL teacher: A microanalytic inquiry. Language Learning, 54(1), 79-112.
Levine, S. C., Goldin‐Meadow, S., Carlson, M. T., & Hemani‐Lopez, N. (2018). Mental transformation skill in young children: The role of concrete and abstract motor training. Cognitive Science, 42(4), 1207-1228.
Lewis, M., Alessandri, S. M., & Sullivan, M. W. (1990). Violation of expectancy, loss of control, and anger expressions in young infants. Developmental Psychology, 26, 745-751.
Lohman, T. M., & Bjornson, K. P. (1996). Mechanisms of helicase-catalyzed DNA unwinding. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 65(1), 169-214.
Mast, F. W., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2002). Visual mental images can be ambiguous: Insights from individual differences in spatial transformation abilities. Cognition, 86(1), 57-70.
Mayberry, R. I., & Nicoladis, E. (2000). Gesture reflects language development: Evidence from bilingual children. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(6), 192-196.
McNeil, N. M., Alibali, M. W., & Evans, J. L. (2000). The role of gesture in children's comprehension of spoken language: Now they need it, now they don't. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24(2), 131-150.
McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. University of Chicago press.
McNeill, D. (1992).Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. University of Chicago press.
Mishra, A. (2003). Age and school related differences in recall of verbal items in a story context. Social Science International, 19, 12-18.
Morsella, E., & Krauss, R. M. (2004). The role of gestures in spatial working memory and speech. American Journal of Psychology, 117(3), 411-424
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Commission on Standards for SchoolMathematics（1989）.Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics.Reston, VA：Author.
Newcombe, N. S., & Frick, A. (2010). Early education for spatial intelligence: Why, what, and how. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4(3), 102-111.
Nicoladis, E., Marentette, P., & Navarro, S. (2016). Gesture frequency linked primarily to story length in 4–10-year old children’s stories. Journal of psycholinguistic research, 45(2), 189-204.
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2014). Paying attention to spatial reasoning K–12: Support document for ‘Paying attention to mathematics education.
Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent: The future of education. NY: Grossman Publishers.
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956).The child's concept of space. Routledge & Paul.
Pine, K. J., & Messer, D. (2003). The development of representations as children learn about balancing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 285-301.
Pine, K. J., Lufkin, N., & Messer, D. (2004). More gestures than answers: Children learning about balance. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1059-1067
Rauscher, F. H., & Zupan, M. A. (2000). Classroom keyboard instruction improves kindergarten children’s spatial-temporal performance: A field experiment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15(2), 215-228.
Roberts Jr, R. J., & Aman, C. J. (1993). Developmental differences in giving directions: spatial frames of reference and mental rotation. Child development, 64(4), 1258-1270
Siegel, A. W., & White, S. H. (1975). The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments. InAdvances in Child Development and Behavior , 10, 9-55
Siegler, R. S. (1976). Three aspects of cognitive development. Cognitive Psychology, 8(4), 481-520
Smithson, L., & Nicoladis, E. (2014). Lending a hand to imagery? The impact of visuospatial working memory interference upon iconic gesture production in a narrative task. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 38(2), 247-258.
Tellier, M. (2008). The effect of gestures on second language memorisation by young children. Gesture, 8(2), 219-235.
Tobin, K., Tippins, D. J., & Gallard, A. J. (1994). Research on instructional strategiesfor teaching science. In G. L. Gabet (ed.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning (pp. 45-93). NJ: Macmillan.
Valenzeno, L., Alibali, M. W., & Klatzky, R. (2003). Teachers’ gestures facilitate students’ learning: A lesson in symmetry. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(2), 187-204.
van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., Elia, I., & Robitzsch, A. (2016). Effects of reading picture books on kindergartners’ mathematics performance. Educational psychology, 36(2), 323-346
Vassilev, Manahilov, Mitov, Nevskaya, & Leushina, 1991). Hemisphere asymmetry of the visually evoked potentials elicited by gratings of varying spatial frequency. Acta Physiologica et Pharmacologica Bulgarica, 17(2-3), 54-60.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1982). Om Barnets Psykiske Udvikling [ On the child’s psychic development]. Copenhage: Nyt Nordisk.
Walk, R. D., & Gibson, E. (1960). The Visual Cliff. Scientific American, 202, 67-61
Wertheimer, M. (1961). Psychomotor coordination of auditory and visual space at birth. Science, 134(3491), 1692
Willats, P., & Fabricius, W. (1993). The origin of forward search planning in infancy.Paper presented to the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, LA.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100
Worth, S. E. (2008). Storytelling and narrative knowing: An examination of the epistemic benefits of well-told stories. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 42(3), 42-56.
Wu, C. H. (2015). Gesture and Speech in Explanation of Abstract Idea in Class-Take High School Chinese Class for Example. 遠東通識學報, 9(2), 63-90.
Zhang, X. (2016). Linking language, visual-spatial, and executive function skills to number competence in very young Chinese children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 178-189. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.010