本論文涵蓋三個低維度的材料系統，從其各自的材料特性中分別去探討與缺陷的關係。
第一部分為三維氧化鎢奈米線的合成與其電致變色的性質探討。三維的氧化鎢奈米線可透過水平爐管以單一步驟成長在導電的玻璃基板上。合成出的樣品可直接組裝成電致變色的元件。利用三維氧化鎢的結構，我們可以在固態以及液態電解質的元件中都得到良好的電化學性質以及光學可調性。此外，在液態電解質元件中，我們可以得到高著色效率(71.6 C-1 cm2)以及良好的鋰離子擴散係數(1.85×10-10 cm2 s-1 )，奈米線中的氧缺陷被認為是提升電致變色性質的主因。
第二部份探討彎折氧化錫奈米帶中非對稱氧缺陷所帶來的憶阻效應。透過水平爐管調控氧分壓的合成方式下，可得到高密度非對稱的彎折氧化錫奈米帶。在外壓改變的狀況下，奈米帶成長平面自(200) 轉向(002)平面。利用掃描穿透式電子顯微鏡，可清楚觀察到彎折結構的奈米帶兩端具有非對稱氧缺陷的情況。這樣非對稱的結構可製成元件成功操作超過105個循環。
第三部份是低溫合成不同型貌及成分的碲化銅奈米結構。透過調控溶液中乙二胺的莫爾體積，可得到不同銅含量的碲化銅奈米結構。從高溫XRD以及即時電子顯微鏡選區繞射圖的分析當中，探討碲化銅奈米線相變化的過程。並且利用光學微影方式定義鎳電極來製造單根奈米線元件，從電流電壓曲線中得到碲化銅奈米線可以在小電壓驅動下產生雙極性電阻轉換的特性，其結果與銅離子擴散有關。

Chapter 1 Introduction

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Chapter 2 Basic Properties of WO3, SnO2, Cu2Te Nanostructures

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Chapter 4 Three Dimensional WO3-x Nanowires for High Coloration Efficiency Electrochromic Device

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4.13 C.C. Liao et al. “WO3-x Nanowires Based Electrochromic Devices,“ Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 90, 1147-1155 (2006).
4.14 S. H. Lee, R. Deshpande, P. A. Parilla, K. M. Jones, B. To, A. H. Mahan, and A. C. Dillon, “CrystallineWO3 Nanoparticles for Highly Improved Electrochromic Applications,” Adv. Mater. 18, 763-766 (2006).
4.15 F. Wang, C. D. Valentin and G. Pacchioni, “Semiconductor-to-Metal Transition in WO3−x: Nature of the Oxygen Vacancy,” Phys. Rev. B 84, 073103 (2011).
4.16 R. Chatten, A. V. Chadwick, A. Rougier and P. J. D. Lindan, “The Oxygen Vacancy in Crystal Phases of WO3,“ J. Phys. Chem. B 109, 3146-3156 (2005).
4.17 D. B. Migas,_ V. L. Shaposhnikov, V. N. Rodin, and V. E. Borisenko, “Tungsten Oxides. I. Effects of Oxygen Vacancies and Doping on Electronic and Optical Properties of Different Phases of WO3,” J. Appl. Phys. 108, 093713 (2010).
4.18 C. C. Liao, F. R. Chen and J. J. Kai, “Annealing Effect on Electrochromic Properties of Tungsten Oxide Nanowires,” Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 91, 1258-1266 (2007).
4.19 Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, H. Liu, Y. Zhou, R. Li, M. Cai, and X. Sun, “Three-Dimensional Hierarchical Structure of Single Crystalline Tungsten Oxide Nanowires: Construction, Phase Transition, and Voltammetric Behavior,” J. Phys. Chem. C. 113, 1746-1750 (2009).
4.20 S. K. Deb, ”Opportunities and Challenges in Science and Technology of WO3 for Electrochromic and Related Applications,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 92, 245-258 (2008).
4.21 J. E. B. Randles, “A Cathode Ray Polarograph. Part II.-the Current-Voltage Curves,” Trans. Faraday Soc. 44, 327-338 (1948).
4.22 G. Leftheriotis, S. Papaefthimiou and P. Yianoulis, “Dependence of the Estimated Diffusion Coefficient of LixWO3 Films on the Scan Rate of Cyclic Voltammetry Experiments,” 178, 259-263 (2007).

Chapter 5 Memristive Switching in Asymmetric Kinked SnO2-x/SnO2 Nanobelts
5.1 R. Waser and M. Aono, “Nanoionics-based resistive switching memories,” Nat. Mat. 6, 833-840 (2007).
5.2 K. Shibuya, R. Dittmann, S. Mi, and R. Waser, “Impact of Defect Distribution on Resistive Switching Characteristics of Sr2TiO4 Thin Films,” Adv. Mat. 22, 411-414 (2010).
5.3 R. Waser, R. Dittmann, G. Staikov, and K. Szot, “Redox-Based Resistive Switching Memories –Nanoionic Mechanisms, Prospects, and Challenges,” Adv. Mat. 21, 2632-2663 (2009).
5.4 A. Mehonic, S. Cueff, M. Wojdak, S. Hudziak, O. Jambois, C. Labbe´, Blas Garrido, R. Rizk, and A. J. Kenyon, “Resistive switching in silicon suboxide films,” J. Appl. Phys. 111, 074507 (2012).
5.5 M.-J. Lee, C. B. Lee, D. Lee, S. R. Lee, M. Chang, J. H. Hur, Y.-B. Kim, C.-J. Kim, D. H. Seo, S. Seo, U-In Chung, I.-K. Yoo and K. Kim, “A fast, high-endurance and scalable non-volatile memory device made from asymmetric Ta2O5-x/TaO2-x bilayer structures,” Nat. Mat. 10, 625-630 (2011).
5.6 Dmitri B. Strukov, Gregory S. Snider, Duncan R. Stewart & R. Stanley Williams, “The missing memristor found,” Nature 453, 80-83 (2008).
5.7 J. J. Yang, M. D. Pickett, XueMa Li, D. A. A. Ohlberg, D. R. Stewart and R. S. Williams, “Memristive switching mechanism for metal/oxide/metal nanodevices,” Nat. Nanotech. 3, 429-433 (2008).
5.8 M. J. Lee, C. B. Lee, D. Lee, S. R. Lee, J. Hur, S. E. Ahn, M. Chang, Y. B. Kim, U In Chung, C. J. Kim, D. S. Kim, and H. Lee, “Improved resistive switching reliability in graded NiO multilayer for resistive nonvolatile memory devices,” IEEE Electron Device Lett., 31, 725-727 (2010)
5.9 Y. L. Song, Y. Liu, Y. L. Wang, M. Wang, X. P. Tian, L. M. Yang, and Y. Y. Lin, “Low Reset Current in Stacked AlOx/WOx Resistive Switching Memory,” IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS 32, 1439-1441 (2011).
5.10 D. Varandani, B. Singh, B. R. Mehta, M. Singh, V. N. Singh and D. Gupta, “Resistive Switching Mechanism in Delafossite-Transition Metal Oxide (CulnO2-CuO) Bilayer Structure,” J. Appl. Phys. 107, 103703 (2010).
5.11 M. Batzill, U. Diebold, “The surface and materials science of tin oxide,” Pro. Sur. Sci. 79, 47-154 (2007).
5.12 K. G. Godinho, A. Walsh, and G. W. Watson, “Energetic and Electronic Structure Analysis of Intrinsic Defects in SnO,” J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 439-448 (2009).
5.13 K. Nagashima, T. Yanagida, K. Oka, and T. Kawai, “Unipolar Resistive Switching Characteristics of Room Temperature Grown SnO2 Thin Films,” Appl. Phys Lett. 94, 242902 (2009).
5.14 J. H. He, T. H. Wu, C. L. Hsin, K. M. Li, L. J. Chen, Y. L. Chueh, L. J. Chou, and Z. L. Wang, “Beaklike SnO2 Nanorods with Strong Photoluminescent and Field-Emission Properties,” Small 2, 116-120 (2009).
5.15 A. Lugstein, M. Steinmair, Y. J. Hyun, G. Hauer, P. Pongratz, and E. Bertagnolli, “Pressure-Induced Orientation Control of the Growth of Epitaxial Silicon Nanowires,“ Nano Lett. 8, 2310-2314 (2008).
5.16 B. Tian, P. Xie, T. J. Kempa, D. C. Bell and C. M. Lieber, “Single-Crystalline Kinked Semiconductor Nanowire Superstructures,” Nat. Nanotech. 4, 824-829 (2009).
5.17 Z. T. Xu , K. Jin , L. Gu , Y. Jin , C. Ge , C. Wang , H. Guo , H. Lu , R. Zhao, and G. Yang, “Evidence for a Crucial Role Played by Oxygen Vacancies in LaMnO3 Resistive Switching Memories,” Small 8, 1279-1284 (2012).
5.18 R. Huang, Y. H. Ikuhara, T. Mizoguchi, S. D. Findlay, A. Kuwabara, C. A. J. Fisher, H. Moriwake, H. Oki, T. Hirayama, and Y. Ikuhara, “Oxygen-Vacancy Ordering at Surfaces of Lithium Manganese (III,IV) Oxide Spinel Nanoparticles,” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50, 3053-3057 (2011).
5.19 H. Hojo, T. Mizoguchi, Hiromichi Ohta, S. D. Findlay, N. Shibata, T. Yamamoto, and Y. Ikuhara, “Atomic Structure of a CeO2 Grain Boundary: The Role of Oxygen Vacancies,” Nano Lett. 10, 4668-4672 (2010).
5.20 S. D. Findlay, N. Shibata, H. Sawada, E. Okunishi, Y. Kondo, Y. Ikuhara, “Dynamics of Annular Bright Field Imaging in Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy,” Ultramicroscopy 110, 903-923 (2010).
5.21 O. Bierwagen, M. E. White, M. Y. Tsai, T. Nagata and J. S. Speck, “Non-Alloyed Schottky and Ohmic Contacts to As-Grown and Oxygen-Plasma Treated n-Type SnO2 (110) and (101) Thin Films,” Appl. Phys. Express 2, 106502 (2009).

Chapter 6 Low Temperature Synthesis of Copper Telluride Nanostructures: Phase Formation, Growth, and Electrical Transport Properties

6.1 K. Ramanathan et al. "Properties of 19_2% Efficiency ZnO/CdS/CuInGaSe2 Thin-Film Solar Cells," Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 11, 225-230 (2003).
6.2 C. H. Lai, K. W. Huang, J. H. Cheng, C. Y. Lee, W. F. Lee, C. T. Huang, B. J. Hwang, L. J. Chen, "Oriented Growth of Large Scale Nickel Sulfide Nanowire Arrays via a General Solution Route for Lithium-Ion Battery Cathode Applications," J. Mater. Chem. 19, 7277-7283 (2009).
6.3 C. H. Lai, K. W. Huang, J. H. Cheng, C. Y. Lee, B. J. Hwang, L. J. Chen, "Direct Growth of High-Rate Capability and High Capacity Copper Sulfide Nanowire Array Cathodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries," J. Mater. Chem. 20, 6638-6645 (2010).
6.4 R. Y. Wang, J. P. F., X. Gu, K. Y. Man, R. A. Segalman, A. Majumdar, D. J. Milliron, J. J. Urban, "Universal and Solution-Processable Precursor to Bismuth Chalcogenide Thermoelectrics," Chem. Mater. 22, 1943-1945 (2010).
6.5 M. Y. Lu; S. J.; M. P. Lu; C. Y. Lee; L. J. Chen and Z. L. Wang, "ZnO-ZnS Heterojunction and ZnS Nanowire Arrays for Electricity Generation," Acs Nano 3, 357-362 (2009).
6.6 M. Y. Lu, M. P. Lu, Y. A. Chung, M. J. Chen, Z. L. Wang and L. J. Chen, "Intercrossed Sheet-Like Ga-Doped ZnS Nanostructures with Superb Photocatalytic Actvitiy and Photoresponse," J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 12878-12882 (2009).
6.7 R. Kapadia, Z. Fan and A. Javey, "Design Constraints and Guidelines for CdS/CdTe Nanopillar Based Photovoltaics," Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 103116 (2010).
6.8 Y. Huang, C. Y. Chen, S. K. Lee, Y. Gao, E. L. Hu, J. D.Yoreo and A. M. Belcher, "Programmable Assembly of Nanoarchitectures Using Genetically Engineered Viruses," Nano Lett. 5, 1429-1434 (2005).
6.9 K. Sridhar and K. Chattopadhyay, "Synthesis by Mechanical Alloying and Thermoelectric Properties of Cu2Te," Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 264, 293–298 (1998).
6.10 H. M.Pathan and C. D. Lokhande, "Deposition of Metal Chalcogenide Thin Films by Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction (SILAR) Method," Bull. Mater. Sci. 27, 85-111 (2004).
6.11 N. Vouroutzis, N. Frangis and C. Manolikas, "The Double Modulation Superstructure of the Room Temperature Stable Phase of Stoichiometric Cu2Te," Phys. Stat. Sol. 202, 271-280 (2005).
6.12 H Kikuchi, H Iyetomi and A Hasegawa, "Insight into the Origin of Superionic Conductivity from Electronic Structure Theory," J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 10, 11439–11448 (1998).
6.13 S.-Y. Miyatani, S. Mori and M. Yanagihara, "Phase Diagram and Electrical Properties of Cu2-δTe," J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 47, 1152-1158 (1979).
6.14 A. J. Brunneri, H. B.; R. Lapka, P. Oelhafen, R. Schögl and H. J. Güntherodt, "The Electronic Structure of Glassy and Crystalline Cu-Te Alloys," J. Phys. C: Sol. Stat. Phys. 20, 5233-5239 (1987).
6.15 V. J. Fulari, V. P. M. and S. A. Gangawane, "Measurement of Properties of Copper Telluride Thin Films Using Holography," Prog. Electromag. Re. C 12, 53-64 (2010).
6.16 J. Zhou, X. Wu, A. Duda,; G. Teeter and S. H. Demtsu, "The Formation of Different Phases of CuxTe and Their Effects on CdTe/CdS Solar Cells," Thin Solid Films 515, 7364-7369 (2007).
6.17 J. L. F. Da Silva, S. H. Wei, J. Zhou and X. Wu, "Stability and Electronic Structures of CuxTe," Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 091902 (2007).
6.18 X. Wu, J. Z., A. Duda, Y. Yan, G. Teeter, S. Asher, W. K.Metzger, S. Demtsu, S.-H. Wei and R. Noufi, "Phase Control of CuxTe Film and Its Effects on CdS/CdTe Solar Cell," Thin Solid Films, 515, 5798-5803 (2007).
6.19 Y. Zhang, Z.-P. Qiao and X.-M. Chen, "Microwave-Assisted Elemental Direct Reaction Route to Nanocrystalline Copper Chalcogenides CuSe and Cu2Te," J. Mater. Chem. 12, 2747-2748 (2002).
6.20 L. Zhang, Z. Ai, F. Jia, L. Liu, X. Hu and J. C. Yu, "Controlled Hydrothermal Synthesis and Growth Mechanism of Various Nanostructured Films of Copper and Silver Tellurides," Chem. Eur. J. 12, 4185–4190 (2006).
6.21 G. She, X. Zhang, W. Shi, Y. Cai, N. Wang, P. Liu and D. Chen, "Template-Free Electrochemical Synthesis of Single-Crystal CuTe Nanoribbons," Crystal Growth & Design 8, 1789-1791 (2008).
6.22 P. Kumar and K. Singh, "Element Directed Aqueous Solution Synthesis of Copper Telluride Nanoparticles, Characterization, and Optical Properties," Crystal Growth & Design 9, 3089-3094 (2009).
6.23 Simándi I. László, Catalytic Activation of Dioxygen by Metal Complexes, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, vol. 13. (1992).
6.24 E. Lifshitz, M. B., V. Kloper, A. Kigel, M. S. Eisen and S. Berger, "Synthesis and Characterization of PbSe Quantum Wires, Multipods, Quantum Rods, and Cubes," Nano Lett. 3, 857-862 (2003).
6.25 Y. Li, Z. Wang and Y. Ding, "Room Temperature Synthesis of Metal Chalcogenides in Ethylenediamine," Inorg. Chem. 38, 4737-4740 (1999).
6.26 Y. D. Li, Y. Ding, H. W. Liao and Y. T. Qian, "Room-Temperature Conversion Route to Nanocrystalline Mercury Chalcogenides HgE (E=S,Se,Te)," J. Phys. Chem. Solids 60, 965-968 (1999).
6.27 L.J. Chen and W.W. Wu, "In situ TEM Investigation of Dynamical Changes of Nanostructures," Mater. Sci. Engng. R 70, 303-319 (2010).
6.28 C. Y. Wang, N. W. Gong and L. J. Chen, "High-Sensitivity Solid-State Pb(Core)/ZnO(Shell) Nanothermometers Fabricated by a Facile Galvanic Displacement Method," Adv. Mater. 20, 4789-4792 (2008).
6.29 S. Kashida, W. S., M. Mori, D. Yoshimura, "Valence Band Photoemission Study of the Copper Chalcogenide Compounds, Cu2S, Cu2Se and Cu2Te," Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, 64, 2357-2363 (2003).
6.30 M. A. Caldwell, S. Raoux, R. Y. Wang, H. S. Philip Wong and D. J. Milliron, " Synthesis and Size-Dependent Crystallization of Colloidal Germanium Telluride Nanoparticles," J. Mater. Chem. 20, 1285-1291 (2010).
6.31 M. B. Smith et al. "Crystal Structure and the Paraelectric-to-Ferroelectric Phase Transition of Nanoscale BaTiO3," J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 6955-6963 (2008).
6.32 F. Huang and J. F. Banfild, "Size-Dependent Phase Transformation Kinetics in Nanocrystalline ZnS," J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 4523-4529 (2005).
6.33 J. Tang, C. Y. Wang, F. Xiu, M. Lang, L. W. Chu, C. J. Tsai, Y. L. Chueh, L. J. Chen and K. L. Wang, "Oxide-Confined Formation of Germanium Nanowire Heterostructures for High-Performance Transistors," ACS Nano 5, 6008-6015 (2011).
6.34 A. C. Ford, J. C. Ho, Y. L. Chueh, Y. C. Tseng, Z. Fan, J. Guo, J. Bokor and A. Javey, "Diameter-Dependent Electron Mobility of InAs Nanowires," Nano Lett. 9, 360-365 (2009).
6.35 D. Ferizovic and M. Munoz, "Optical, Electrical and Structural Properties of Cu2Te Thin Films Deposited by Magnetron Sputtering," Thin Solid Films 519, 6115-6119 (2011).

Chapter 8 Future Prospects

8.1 R. Waser, R. Dittmann, G. Staikov, and K. Szot, “Redox-Based Resistive Switching Memories –Nanoionic Mechanisms, Prospects, and Challenges,” Adv. Mat. 21, 2632-2663 (2009).
8.2 J. J. Yang, M. D. Pickett, XueMa Li, D. A. A. Ohlberg, D. R. Stewart and R. S. Williams, “Memristive switching mechanism for metal/oxide/metal nanodevices,” Nat. Nanotech. 3, 429-433 (2008).
8.3 K. Nagashima, T. Yanagida, K. Oka, M. Kanai, A. Klamchuen, J. S. Kim, B. H. Park and T. Kawai, “Intrinsic Mechanisms of Memristive Switching,” 11, 2114-2118 (2011).