現今越來越多的活動利用社群網站（social network sites）來進行宣傳、召集參加者、管理等等。然而，針對某些需要現場出席，但是經由網路號召的活動，它們實際參與人數，與網路上表明參與的人數有落差的事時有所聞。由此可見，網路世界中的參與並不一定能帶入現實世界中。本論文正是要探討這個現象，究竟線上與線下參與行為是否真的存在差距？如果存在，其成因為何？研究分成兩個階段，首先是利用訪談了解人們如何回應網路的活動邀請，並挖掘出影響他們線上與線下參與行為的因素。接著針對訪談結果的幾項因素，社會連結（social tie）以及回覆介面設計，透過經驗抽驗法(experience sampling method)與實驗法進行檢證。研究發現線上與線下活動參與的一致性，與社會網路結構、媒體特性、活動性質三個構面相關。而使用者線上的回應，隨著邀請人、以及其他受邀人的社會連結的不同而改變。同時結果也顯示出，透過改善活動邀請回覆的介面，能夠使人們更明確地表達自己的參與意願，進而可能減少線上與線下落差。

One growing use of computer-based communication media is for gathering people to initiate or sustain social events, but online participation in an event does not always translate to offline attendance. This thesis investigates whether and how the gap exists between online and offline forms of participation. The thesis consists of two studies: We first look at how people handle online event invitations and what influences their online and offline participation by interview. Then we conduct an experiment to further examine the role of a few crucial factors found in interviews, including social tie strength and interface factors. The results illuminate the sophisticated nature of the mechanisms that affect participation and provide new understanding on the effects SNS features have on people’s online responses and offline attendance. Furthermore, this thesis demonstrates that improving interface design has the potential to bridge virtual and real attendance.

楊靜茹（2014，3月28日）。包圍黨部僅警察到少年落寞離去。蘋果日報。取自http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/new/20140328/369033/?utm_source=FB&utm_medium=MWeb_Share&utm_campaign=%E3%80%90%E6%9B%B4%E6%96%B0%E3%80%91%E5%8C%85%E5%9C%8D%E9%BB%A8%E9%83%A8%E5%83%85%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E5%88%B0%E3%80%80%E5%B0%91%E5%B9%B4%E8%90%BD%E5%AF%9E%E9%9B%A2%E5%8E%BB

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitudebehavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84(5), 888–918. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.84.5.888
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

Bessière, K., Kiesler, S., Kraut, R., & Boneva, B. S. (2008). Effects of Internet Use and Social Resources on Changes in Depression. Information, Communication & Society, 11(1), 47–70. doi:10.1080/13691180701858851

Birnholtz, J., Reynolds, L., Smith, M. E., & Hancock, J. (2013). “Everyone Has to Do It: ” A Joint Action Approach to Managing Social Inattention. Comput. Hum. Behav., 29(6), 2230–2238. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.05.004

Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: requests and apologies. Ablex Pub. Corp.

Bond, R. M., Fariss, C. J., Jones, J. J., Kramer, A. D. I., Marlow, C., Settle, J. E., & Fowler, J. H. (2012). A 61-million-person experiment in social influence and political mobilization. Nature, 489(7415), 295–298. doi:10.1038/nature11421

Boyd, D. (2006). Friends, Friendsters, and Top 8: Writing community into being on social network sites. First Monday, 11(12). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/1418

Boyd, D. (2007). Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life. In Youth, Identity, and Digital Media Volume (pp. 119–142). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 210–230. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x

Brandtzæg, P. B., & Heim, J. (2009). Why People Use Social Networking Sites. In A. A. Ozok & P. Zaphiris (Eds.), Online Communities and Social Computing (pp. 143–152). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-02774-1_16

Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.

Burke, M. (2011). Reading, Writing, Relationships: The Impact of Social Network Sites on Relationships and Well-Being. Dissertations. Retrieved from http://repository.cmu.edu/dissertations/185

Burke, M., & Kraut, R. (2008). Mind Your Ps and Qs: The Impact of Politeness and Rudeness in Online Communities. In Proceedings of the 2008 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 281–284). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1460563.1460609

Burke, M., Marlow, C., & Lento, T. (2010). Social Network Activity and Social Well-being. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1909–1912). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1753326.1753613

Carlo, J. L., & Yoo, Y. (2007). “How may I help you?” Politeness in computer-mediated and face-to-face library reference transactions. Information and Organization, 17(4), 193–231. doi:10.1016/j.infoandorg.2007.05.002

Clark, H. H., & Brennan, S. E. (1991). Grounding in communication. In L. B. Resnick, J. M. Levine, & S. D. Teasley (Eds.), Perspectives on socially shared cognition (pp. 127–149). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.

Diani, M. (2000). Social Movement Networks Virtual and Real. Information, Communication & Society, 3(3), 386–401. doi:10.1080/13691180051033333

Ellison, N. B., Hancock, J. T., & Toma, C. L. (2012). Profile as promise: A framework for conceptualizing veracity in online dating self-presentations. New Media & Society, 14(1), 45–62. doi:10.1177/1461444811410395

Ellison, N. B., Lampe, C., & Steinfield, C. (2009). FEATURE: Social Network Sites and Society: Current Trends and Future Possibilities. Interactions, 16(1), 6–9. doi:10.1145/1456202.1456204

Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The Benefits of Facebook “Friends:” Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143–1168. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x

Evans-Cowley, J. S. (2010). Planning in the age of Facebook: the role of social networking in planning processes. GeoJournal, 75(5), 407–420. doi:10.1007/s10708-010-9388-0

Farzan, R., Dabbish, L. A., Kraut, R. E., & Postmes, T. (2011). Increasing Commitment to Online Communities by Designing for Social Presence. In Proceedings of the ACM 2011 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 321–330). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1958824.1958874

Flor, A. M., & Juan, E. U. (2010). Speech Act Performance: Theoretical, Empirical and Methodological Issues. John Benjamins Publishing.

Geen, R. G. (1991). Social Motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 42(1), 377–399. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.002113

Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J. Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, Acting, and Knowing: Toward an Ecological Psychology (pp. 127–143). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Gilbert, E. (2012). Predicting Tie Strength in a New Medium. In Proceedings of the ACM 2012 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 1047–1056). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/2145204.2145360

Gilbert, E., & Karahalios, K. (2009). Predicting tie strength with social media. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 211–220). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1518701.1518736

Granovetter, M. (1983). The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited. Sociological Theory, 1, 201-233. doi: 10.2307/202051

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. NY: Anchor Books.

Guo, Y. (2012). Chinese and American refusal strategy: A cross-cultural approach. Theory and practice in language studies, 2(2), 247-256.

Gustafsson, N. &Wahlström, M. (2008). Virtual mobilisation? Linking on-line and off-line political participation among Swedish Facebook users: Courtesy and irritation. The XV NOPSA conference 2008, workshop ‘Globalization as Individualization and Destabilization’.

Harlow, S. (2011). Social media and social movements: Facebook and an online Guatemalan justice movement that moved offline. New Media & Society, 14(2), 225-243. doi:10.1177/1461444811410408

Harlow, S., & Harp, D. (2012). Collective Action on the Web. Information, Communication & Society, 15(2), 196–216. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2011.591411

Hogan, B. (2010). The Presentation of Self in the Age of Social Media: Distinguishing Performances and Exhibitions Online. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 30(6), 377–386. doi:10.1177/0270467610385893

Jonassen, D. H., & Ii, H. K. (2001). Communication patterns in computer mediated versus face-to-face group problem solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(1), 35–51. doi:10.1007/BF02504505

Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: the day reconstruction method. Science (New York, N.Y.), 306(5702), 1776–1780. doi:10.1126/science.1103572

Karau, S. J., & Williams, K. D. (1993). Social Loafing: A Meta-Analytic Review and Theoretical Integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4), 681–706.

Kelman, H. (1958). Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1, 51-60.

Khan, Z., & Jarvenpaa, S. L. (2010). Exploring temporal coordination of events with Facebook.com. Journal of Information Technology, 25(2), 137–151. doi:10.1057/jit.2010.8

Klandermans, P. G. (1984). Mobilization and participation in trade union action: An expectancy-value approach. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 57(2), 107–120. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.1984.tb00153.x

Kulkarni, C., & Chi, E. (2013). All the News That’s Fit to Read: A Study of Social Annotations for News Reading. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 2407–2416). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/2470654.2481334

Lampe, C., Ellison, N., & Steinfield, C. (2006). A Face(Book) in the Crowd: Social Searching vs. Social Browsing. In Proceedings of the 2006 20th Anniversary Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 167–170). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1180875.1180901

Lampe, C., Gray, R., Fiore, A. T., & Ellison, N. (2014). Help is on the Way: Patterns of Responses to Resource Requests on Facebook. In Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing (pp. 3–15). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/2531602.2531720

Latané, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 343-356.

Lee, Y.-H., & Hsieh, G. (2013). Does Slacktivism Hurt Activism?: The Effects of Moral Balancing and Consistency in Online Activism. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 811–820). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/2470654.2470770

Liao, C., & Bresnahan, M. I. (1996). A contrastive pragmatic study on American english and mandarin refusal strategies. Language Sciences, 18(3–4), 703–727. doi:10.1016/S0388-0001(96)00043-5

Marsden, P. V., & Campbell, K. E. (1984). Measuring Tie Strength. Social Forces, 63(2), 482–501. doi: 10.2307/2579058

Marsh, C. (1985). Back on the Bandwagon: The Effect of Opinion Polls on Public Opinion. British Journal of Political Science, 15(1), 51–74.

McCafferty, D. (2011). Activism vs. Slacktivism. Commun. ACM, 54(12), 17–19. doi:10.1145/2043174.2043182

Mehl, M. R., & Conner, T. S. (2013). Handbook of Research Methods for Studying Daily Life. Guilford Publications.

Nichols, T. R., Graber, J. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Botvin, G. J. (2006). Ways to Say No: Refusal Skill Strategies Among Urban Adolescents. American Journal of Health Behavior, 30(3), 227–236. doi:10.5993/AJHB.30.3.1

Nielsen, R. K. (2011). Mundane internet tools, mobilizing practices, and the coproduction of citizenship in political campaigns. New Media & Society, 13(5), 755–771. doi:10.1177/1461444810380863

Norman, D. A. (1999). Affordance, Conventions, and Design. Interactions, 6(3), 38–43. doi:10.1145/301153.301168

Oliver, P. (1984). “If You Don’t Do it, Nobody Else Will”: Active and Token Contributors to Local Collective Action. American Sociological Review, 49(5), 601–610. doi:10.2307/2095418

Panovich, K., Miller, R., & Karger, D. (2012). Tie Strength in Question; Answer on Social Network Sites. In Proceedings of the ACM 2012 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 1057–1066). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/2145204.2145361

Paris, C. M., Lee, W., & Seery, P. (2010). The Role of Social Media in Promoting Special Events: Acceptance of
Facebook “Events.” In D. U. Gretzel, D. R. Law, & P. M. Fuchs (Eds.), Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2010 (pp. 531–541). Springer Vienna. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-211-99407-8_44

Parks, M. R., & Roberts, L. D. (1998). `Making Moosic’: The Development of Personal Relationships on Line and a Comparison to their Off-Line Counterparts. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(4), 517–537. doi:10.1177/0265407598154005

PTT official Facebook page. (n.d.). Company Overview. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/PttTW/info

Ramzy, A. (2014). Opponents of China Trade Deal Occupy Taiwan’s Legislature. Sinosphere Blog. Retrieved August 14, 2014, from http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/19/opponents-of-china-tradedeal-occupy-taiwans-legislature/

Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. MIT Press.

Rotman, D., Vieweg, S., Yardi, S., Chi, E., Preece, J., Shneiderman, B., … Glaisyer, T. (2011). From Slacktivism to Activism: Participatory Culture in the Age of Social Media. In CHI ’11 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 819–822). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1979742.1979543

Rush, K. (2012). Optimization at the Obama campaign: a/b testing. Kyle Rush. Retrieved from http://kylerush.net/blog/optimization-at-the-obama-campaign-ab-testing/

Scollon, C. N., Kim-Prieto, C., & Diener, E. (2003). Experience Sampling: Promises and Pitfalls, Strengths and Weaknesses. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4(1), 5–34. doi:10.1023/A:1023605205115

Sharma, A., & Cosley, D. (2011). Network-Centric Recommendation: Personalization with and in Social Networks. In Privacy, security, risk and trust (passat), 2011 ieee third international conference on and 2011 ieee third international conference on social computing (socialcom) (pp. 282–289). doi:10.1109/PASSAT/SocialCom.2011.166

Simmons, T. L. (1994). Politeness Theory in Computer Mediated Communication: Face Threatening Acts in a “Faceless” Medium. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED381005

Starbird, K., & Palen, L. (2012). (How) Will the Revolution Be Retweeted?: Information Diffusion and the 2011 Egyptian Uprising. In Proceedings of the ACM 2012 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 7–16). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/2145204.2145212.

Stefanone, M. A., Kwon, K., & Lackaff, D. (2011). The value of online friends: Networked resources via social network sites. First Monday, 16(2). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/3314

Teorell, J. (2003). Linking Social Capital to Political Participation: Voluntary Associations and Networks of Recruitment in Sweden1. Scandinavian Political Studies, 26(1), 49–66. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00079
Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2008). Lessons from Facebook: The Effect of Social Network Sites on College Students’ Social Capital.

Veinott, E. S., Olson, J., Olson, G. M., & Fu, X. (1999). Video Helps Remote Work: Speakers Who Need to Negotiate Common Ground Benefit from Seeing Each Other. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 302–309). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/302979.303067

Vitak, J. (2014). Facebook Makes the Heart Grow Fonder: Relationship Maintenance Strategies Among Geographically Dispersed and Communication-restricted Connections. In Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing (pp. 842–853). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/2531602.2531726

Vissers, S., Hooghe, M., Stolle, D., & Mahéo, V.-A. (2012). The Impact of Mobilization Media on Off-Line and Online Participation: Are Mobilization Effects Medium-Specific? Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev., 30(2), 152–169. doi:10.1177/0894439310396485

Von Ahn, L., & Dabbish, L. (2004). Labeling Images with a Computer Game. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 319–326). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/985692.985733

Walther, J. B. (1992). Interpersonal Effects in Computer-Mediated Interaction A Relational Perspective. Communication Research, 19(1), 52–90. doi:10.1177/009365092019001003

Wang, H.-C., Cosley, D., & Fussell, S. R. (2010). Idea Expander: Supporting Group Brainstorming with Conversationally Triggered Visual Thinking Stimuli. In Proceedings of the 2010 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 103–106). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1718918.1718938

Wang, H.-C., Fussell, S. F., & Setlock, L. D. (2009). Cultural Difference and Adaptation of Communication Styles in Computer-mediated Group Brainstorming. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 669–678). New York, NY, USA: ACM. doi:10.1145/1518701.1518806

Wellman, B., Salaff, J., Dimitrova, D., Garton, L., Gulia, M., & Haythornthwaite, C. (1996). Computer Networks as Social Networks: Collaborative Work, Telework, and Virtual Community. Annual Review of Sociology, 22(1), 213–238. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.21

Wellman, B., & Wortley, S. (1990). Different Strokes from Different Folks: Community Ties and Social Support. American Journal of Sociology, 96(3), 558–588.

Wesch, M. (2010). YouTube and You: Experiences of Self-awareness in the Context Collapse of the Recording Webcam. Explorations in Media Ecology, 8(2), 19–34.

Williams, K.D. & Williams, K.B. (1989). Impact of source strength on two compliance techniques. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10(2), 149-159

Wolfson, N. (1990). The Bulge: A Theory of Speech Behavior and Social Distance. Penn Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 2(1), 55–83.

Young, D. P. (1995). The relationship between electronic and face-to-face communication and its implication for alternative workplace strategies. Facilities, 13(6), 20–27. doi:10.1108/02632779510085186

Zhang, S., Jiang, H., & Carroll, J. M. (2011). Integrating online and offline community through facebook. In 2011 International Conference on Collaboration Technologies and Systems (CTS) (pp. 569–578). doi:10.1109/CTS.2011.5928738

Zhou, T. (2011). Understanding online community user participation: a social influence perspective. Internet Research, 21(1), 67–81. doi:10.1108/10662241111104884