摘要

本論文旨在探討綏夫特(Jonathan Swift)的兩部作品：《格理弗遊記》(Gulliver’s Travels)和《野人芻議》(A Modest Proposal)中「食人」(cannibalism)的意象。 綏夫特對於「食人」概念的運用反映出他不只延續了1492年哥倫布(Christopher Columbus)在發現美洲新大陸時，對食人族的描述及命名；以及十六世紀蒙恬(Michel de Montaigne)在〈論食人族〉(“Of Cannibals”)中從食人族的野蠻行為裡，自我反省，進而批判國人更加殘酷的種種作為，這兩條關於「食人」論述的傳統；更從與他同一時代的文學作品中，獲得靈感，並藉此批評當代作品中對於異者的刻板印象及論述，闡發並加深「食人」意象的意義。這部論文將試圖探究以下幾個議題：「食人」意象在綏夫特時代和再現異者的關係、綏夫特和其同年代作品對於「食人」概念的不同，以及綏夫特在他的兩部作品中如何強化此意象。
在此論文的第二章，將會研究三部與綏夫特同時代作品中的「食人」意象：薩瑪納札(George Psalmanazar)的《福爾摩沙變形記》(An Historical and Geographical Description of Formosa) 、狄福(Daniel Defoe)的《魯賓遜漂流記》(Robinson Crusoe)及卞恩(Aphra Behn)的《高貴的奴隸》(Oroonoko)。這三部作品分別表現了三種當時典型對於異者及食人族的概念。薩瑪納札滿足當時歐洲人對於異國文化的好奇，利用食人族的描述增強了他身為虛構的福爾摩沙土著的可信度；而狄福則是遵循著當時一般歐洲人對食人族行徑的刻板印象，表現對於殖民及帝國主義的樂觀鼓勵態度；在另一方面，卞恩則是將「食人」的意象以暗喻的方式呈現在歐洲殖民者上，和雖為非洲土著，但是出身貴族，品德高尚的主角成為強烈對比。
在第三章中，重點將會放在綏夫特如何將這些不同的「食人」概念反映在《格理弗遊記》和《野人芻議》裡。「食人」的意象在這兩部作品中，形成一種特殊的「歷史論述」，不但批判了吃人者，也批評了被吃的人。
最後，本論文以綏夫特擴大了「食人」的現代意象，成為一種當代歷史論述作為結論，並說明「食人」的意象在述說異者時，扮演關鍵的角色。

Abstract
This thesis examines the figuration of cannibalism in Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1726) and A Modest Proposal (1729) in relation to works in his time, including George Psalmanazar’s Description of Formosa (1704-1705), Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719), and Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko (1689). The historical formation of cannibalism in Swift’s works illustrates that Swift may have not only been indebted to the long tradition of the figuration of cannibalism since Christopher Columbus and Michel de Montaigne but also owed much to the rhetorical concepts of cannibalism in the works of his contemporaries. This thesis highlights these issues in Swift’s works: How is the representation of cannibals significant in the construction of the other in his time? What are the differences between Swift’s and his contemporaries’ view on cannibals? How does Swift complicate and politicize this subject in Gulliver’s Travels and A Modest Proposal?
Hayden White’s idea of “historical discourse” will frame my exploration of the figuration of cannibalism in Swift’s works. The thesis would be divided into two major parts: Each probes cannibalism as a historical discourse under modern interpretation in relation to Swift and his contemporaries. I aim to clarify how Swift complicates and politicizes the cannibalistic figure in his works. The Introduction concentrates on the beginning of modern cannibalism since Columbus and Montaigne, investigating how the figures of cannibalism are applied to several uses. The tradition of the figures of man-eating can be traced back to Greek myth, Homer, and Herodotus’s Histories. The cannibalistic figures were presented either as an indication of deep hatred to an enemy or a sign of cultural difference. The practice of cannibalism was looked upon with no moral judgment. Modern concepts of cannibalism began in Columbus’s naming the Caribbean anthropophagi “cannibals.” The figuration of cannibalism has been turned into a form of a “historical discourse” since 1492 when Columbus famously categorized Amerindian savages as man-eating cannibals and associated the figures of cannibalism with an indication of extreme barbarity and a cultural trope that denotes a group of people who are in need of conversion and colonial civilization. Montaigne’s seminal essay “Of Cannibals” (1580) led cannibalism to another direction—that is, it functioned as a weapon for self-criticism, which spoke out the fact that the civilized Europeans could be much crueler than the cannibals. For Montainge, cannibals were still those naked savages, but Europeans might be worse than these people if they continued performing brutal acts.
Chapter Two focuses on the images of cannibals in works by Psalmanazar, Defoe, and Behn to figure out the general concepts of cannibalism in Swift’s age. Later in Swift’s time, the two main concepts of cannibalism from Columbus and Montaigne were applied in travel accounts and other literary works about the savage other. Psalmanazar’s Description of Formosa succeeded the tradition of the stereotypes of the exotic other, reinforcing his fake identity as a native Formosan by eating raw meat and telling sensational stories about the cannibalistic practice in Formosa. The images of cannibals in Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe are presented according to the stereotypes of the savage other at that time, which justify European domination and colonization. Behn’s Oroonoko, on the other hand, follows Montaigne’s tradition, criticizing Europeans’ brutality by comparing them with savages.
My main concern in Chapter Three is how Swift criticizes his contemporaries’ ideas of cannibalism in Gulliver’s Travels and A Modest Proposal. Basically, Swift agreed that Europeans were no better than the bloodthirsty cannibals, but his attitude toward the savage other was not sympathetic, either. The figuration of cannibalism in both Gulliver’s Travels and A Modest Proposal forms a particular historical discourse, under which both Europeans and the savage other victimize the other and are victimized by each other.
This thesis concludes that Swift’s idea of cannibalism broadens modern meanings of the cannibalistic figure.

Works Cited
Arens, William. The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1979.
---. “Rethinking Anthropology.” Barker, Hulme, and Iverson 39-62.
Asimov, Issac, ed. The Annnotated Gulliver’s Travels. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1980.
Barker, Francis, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen, eds. Cannibalism and the Colonial World. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998.
Bartolovich, Crystal. “Consumerism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Cannibalism.” Barker, Hulme, and Iverson 204-37.
Benedict, Barbara M. Curiosity: A Cultural History of Early Modern Inquiry. Chicago: Chicago UP, 2001.
Behn, Aphra. Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave: A True History. 1688. Ed. Joanna Lipking. New York: Norton, 1997.
---. Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave. 1688. Ed. Catherine Gallagher and Simon Stern. New York: Bedford, 2000.
Bellei, Sérgio Luiz Prado. “Brazilian Anthropophagy Revisited.” Barker, Hulme, and Iverson 87-109.
Bhabha, Homi K. “The Other Question: Difference, Discrimination and the Discourse of Colonialism.” Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary Cultures. Ed. Russell Ferguson et al. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990. 71-87.
Blanton, Casey. Travel Writing: The Self and the World. New York: Twayne, 1997.
Boyle, Frank. Swift as Nemesis: Modernity and Its Satirist. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford UP, 2000.
Brown, Laura. “The Romance of Empire: Oroonoko and the Trade in Slaves.” 1993. Lipking 232-45.
Coetzee, J. M. Foe. London: Penguin, 1986.
---. The Lives of Animals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1999.
Columbus, Christopher. The Four Voyages. Ed. and Trans. J. M. Cohen. London: Penguin, 1969.
Conklin, Beth A. “‘Thus Are Our Bodies, Thus Was Our Custom’: Mortuary Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society.” American Ethnologist 22.1 (1995): 75-101.
Crane, R. S. “The Houyhnhnms, the Yahoos, and the History of Ideas.” 1962. Greenberg 331-38.
Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe. 1719. Ed. Michael Shinagel. New York: Norton, 1975.
Dennis, Nigel. “Swift and Defoe.” Greenberg 363-71.
Donoghue, Denis. “The Houyhnhnms’ Lifestyle Has Its Attractions.” 1969. Wiener 150-51.
Dudley, Edward and Maximillian E. Novak, eds. The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thought from the Renaissance to Romanticism. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh UP, 1972.
Dyson, A. E. “Swift: The Metamorphosis of Irony.” 1959. Greenberg 350-62.
Ehrenpreis, Irvin. Swift: The Man, His Works, and the Age. 3 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1962-1983.
---. “The Allegory of Gulliver’s Travels.” Swift Studies 4 (1989): 13-28.
---. “Show and Tell in Gulliver’s Travels.” Swift Studies 8 (1993): 18-33.
Eilon, Daniel. Factions’ Fictions: Ideological Closure in Swift’s Satire. Newark: Delaware UP, 1991.
Ellis, Markman. “Crusoe, Cannibalism, and Empire.” Robinson Crusoe: Myths and Metamorphoses. Ed. Lieve Spaas and Brian Simpson. London: Macmillian, 1996. 45-61.
Fauske, Christopher J. Jonathan Swift and the Church of Ireland, 1710-1724. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2002.
Flynn, Carol Houlihan. The Body in Swift and Defoe. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990.
Foley, Frederic J. The Great Formosan Impostor. St. Louis: St. Louis University; Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute; Taipei: Mei-Ya Publications, 1968.
Ford, Boris. “The Limitations of the Houyhnhnms.” 1957. Wiener 147-55.
Forster, Jean-Paul. Jonathan Swift: The Fiction of the Satirist. Berne: Peter Lang, 1998.
Fox, Christopher. “Introduction: How to Prepare a Noble Savage: The Spectacle of Human Science.” Inventing Human Science: Eighteenth-Century Domains. Ed. Christopher Fox, Roy Porter, and Robert Wokler. Berkeley: U of California P, 1995. 1-30.
Francus, Marilyn. The Converting Imagination: Linguistic Theory and Swift’s Satiric Prose. Carbondale, IL: South Illinois UP, 1994.
Goldman, Laurence R., ed. The Anthropology of Cannibalism. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 1999.
---. “From Pot to Polemic: Uses and Abuses of Cannibalism.” Goldman 1-26.
Gosse, Edmund. A History of Eighteenth-Century Literature. New York: Ayer, 1889.
Greenberg, Robert A., ed. Gulliver’s Travels: An Authoritative Text, the Correspondence of Swift, Pope’s Verses on Gulliver’s Travels, Critical Essays. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 1970.
Greene, Donald. “The Education of Lemuel Gulliver.” The Varied Patterns: Studies in the Eighteenth Century. Ed. Peter Hughes and David Williams. Toronto: Hakkert, 1971. 3-20.
Herodotus. The Histories. Trans. Walter Blanco. Ed. Walter Blanco and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. New York: Norton, 1992.
Higgins, Ian. Swift’s Politics: A Study in Disaffection. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994.
Hulme, Peter. Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492-1797. 1986. London: Routledge, 1992.
---. “Tales of Distinction: European Ethnography and the Caribbean.” Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters between Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era. Ed. Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. 157-97.
Jestin, Loftus. “Splendide Mendax: Purposeful Misprison, Determinant Irony, in Gulliver’s Travels.” Swift Studies 14 (1999): 99-114.
Keevak, Michael. “George Psalmanazar: Impostor, Traveler.” Crossings: Travel, Art, Literature, Politics. Ed. Roudolphus Teeuwen. Taipei: Bookman, 2001. 91-101.
---. The Pretended Asian: George Psalmanazar’s Eighteenth-Century Formosan Hoax. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 2004.
Kelling, H. D. “Gulliver’s Travels IV, Once More.” Scholia Satyrica 2.2 (1976): 3-12.
Kelsall, M. M. “Iterum Houyhnhnms: Swift’s Sextumvibrate and the Horses.” Essays in Criticism 19 (1969): 35-45.
Kilgour, Maggie. From Communion to Cannibalism: An Anatomy of Metaphors of Incorporation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1990.
---. “The Function of Cannibalism at the Present Time.” Barker, Hulme, and Iverson 238-59.
King, C. Richard. “The(Mis)Uses of Cannibalism in Contemporary Cultural Critique” Diacritics 30.1 (2001): 106-23.
Kraniauskas, John. “Cronos and the Political Economy of Vampirism: Notes on a Historical Constellation.” Barker, Hulme, and Iverson 142-57.
Landa, Louis A. “Jonathan Swift.” 1946. Greenberg 287-96.
Lestringant, Frank. “Travels in Eucharistia: Formosa and Ireland from George Psalmanaazaar to Jonathan Swift.” Yale French Studies 86 (1994): 109-25.
Lund, Roger D., ed. Critical Essays on Daniel Defoe. New York: G. K. Hall, 1997.
Maddox, James H. “On Defoe’s Roxana.” 1984. Lund 266-84.
Mahony, Robert. Jonathan Swift: The Irish Identity. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1995.
Mason, Peter. “Ethnographic Portraiture in the Eighteenth Century: George Psalmanaazaar’s Drawings of Formosans.” Eighteenth-Century Life 23.3 (1999): 58-76.
Mayer, Robert. History and the Early English Novel: Matters of Fact from Bacon to Defoe. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997.
McLeod, Bruce. The Geography of Empire in English Literature, 1580-1745. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1999.
Monk, Samuel Holt. “The Pride of Lemuel Gulliver.” 1955. Greenberg 312-330.
Montaigne, Michel Eyguem de. “Of Cannibals.” The Complete Essays of Montaigne. 1957. Trans. Donald M. Frame. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1965. 150-59.
Morris, Rosalind C. “Anthropology in the Body Shop: Lords of the Garden, Cannibalism, and the Consuming Desires of Televisual Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 98.1 (1996): 137-50.
Nash, Gary B. “The Image of the Indian in the Southern Colonial Mind.” Dudley and Novak 55-86.
Novak, Maximillian E. “The Wild Man Comes to Tea.” Dudley and Novak 183-221.
---. “Primitivism.” The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism: The Eighteenth Century. Ed. H. B. Nisbet and Claude Rawson. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997. 456-69.
Pagden, Anthony. The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1982.
---. “The ‘Defense of Civilization’ in Eighteenth-Century Social Theory.” History of the Human Sciences 1.1 (1988): 33-45.
Peake, Charles. “Swift and the Passions.”Modern Language Review 15 (1960): 169-80.
Pearlman, E. “Robinson Crusoe and the Cannibals.” Mosaic 10.1 (1976): 39-55.
Phillips, Jerry. “Cannibalism qua Capitalism: The Metaphorics of Accumulation in Marx, Conrad, Shakespeare, and Marlowe.” Barker, Hulme, and Iverson 183-203.
Phillips, Seymour. “The Outer World of the European Middle Ages.” Implicit Understanding: Observing, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters between Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era. Ed. Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. 23-63.
Porter, Dennis. Haunted Journeys: Desire and Transgression in European Travel Writing. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1991.
Pratt, Mary Louise. Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation. London: Routledge, 1992.
Psalmanazar, George. An Historical and Geographical Description of Formosa: An Island Subject to the Emperor of Japan. 2nd ed. London: N.p., 1705.
---. An Historical Description of Formosa: An Island Subject to the Emperor of Japan. 1704. London: Robert Holden, 1926.
Rawson, Claude. “Gulliver and the Gentle Reader.” 1968. Greenberg 408-14.
---. “Cannibalism and Fiction: Reflection on Narrative Form and ‘Extreme’ Situations.” Genre 10.4 (1977): 667-711.
---. Order from Confusion Sprung: Studies in Eighteen-Century Literature from Swift to Cowper. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985.
---. “Savages Noble and Ignoble: Natives, Cannibals, Third Parties, and Others in South Pacific Narratives by Gulliver, Bougainville, and Diderot, with Notes on the Encyclopédie and on Voltaire.” Eighteenth-Century Life 18 (1994): 168-97.
---. God, Gulliver, and Genocide: Barbarism and the European Imagination, 1492-1945. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001.
---. “Behind the Tub: If Swift Read Robinson Crusoe, He Never Admitted It.” Rev. of The Library and Reading of Jonathan Swift, by Dirk F. Passmann and Heinz J. Vienken. Times Literary Supplement 10 September 2004: 3-4.
---. “Unspeakable Rites: Cultural Reticence and the Cannibal Question.” 24HourScholar. 2005. LookSmart, Ltd., San Francisco. 21pp. 28 May 2005 <http://www.24hourscholar.com/p/articles/mi_m2267/is_1_66/ai_54668873>
Ritchie, Daniel E. Reconstructing Literature in an Ideological Age: A Biblical Poetics and Literary Studies from Milton to Burke. Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
Root, Deborah. Cannibal Culture: Art, Appropriation, and the Commodification of Difference. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996.
Rose, Mary Beth. “Gender and the Heroics of Endurance in Oroonoko.” 1997. Lipking 256-64.
Rosenheim, Edward, Jr. “The Fifth Voyage of Lemuel Gulliver.” Modern Philology 60 (1962): 103-19.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. 1978. New York: Vintage, 1979.
---. The World, the Text, and the Critic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1983.
Salvucci, James Gerard. Gulliver’s Travels and Constructs of the Primitive in Swift’s Time. Diss. U of Toronto, 2000. Ann Arbor: UMI, 2000.
Sanday, Peggy Reeves. Divine Hunger: Cannibalism as a Cultural System. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1986.
Scott, Sir Walter. “Introduction to Gulliver’s Travels.” 1824. Rivero 311-19.
Sherburn, George. “Errors Concerning the Houyhnhnms.” Modern Philology 56 (1958): 92-97.
Shinagel, Michael. Preface. Robinson Crusoe. Ed. Michael Shinagel. New York: Norton, 1994. vii-viii.
Skeen, Catherine. “Projecting Fictions: Gulliver’s Travels, Jack Connor, and John Buncle.” Modern Philology: A Journal Devoted to Research in Medieval and Modern Literature 100.3 (2003): 330-59.
Smith, Frederic N., ed. The Genres of Gulliver’s Travels. Newark: Delaware UP, 1990.
Stagl, Justin. A History of Curiosity: The Theory of Travel, 1550-1800. Poststrasse: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1995.
Suits, Conrad. “The Role of the Horses in ‘A Voyage to the Houyhnhnms.’” University of Toronto Quarterly 10 (1964-65): 118-32.
Sussman, Charlotte. “The Other Problem with Women: Reproduction and Slave Culture in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko.” 1993. Lipking 246-56.
Swiderski, Richard M. The False Formosan: George Psalmanazar and the Eighteenth-Century Experiment of Identity. San Francisco: Mellen Research UP, 1991.
Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver’s Travels: Based on the 1726 Text, Contexts, Criticism. Ed. Rivero, Albert J. New York: Norton, 2002.
---. A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public. 1729. The Prose Works of Jonathan Swift. Vol. 7 of 12 vols. London: George Bell and Sons, 1905. 201-16.
Terry, Richard. “Gulliver’s Travels and the Savage-Critic Topos.” Swift Studies 11 (1996): 115-31.
Thorslev, Peter L., Jr. “The Wild Man’s Revenge.” Dudley and Novak 281-307.
Todd, Dennis. “Crusoe’s and Gulliver’s ‘Natural’ Aversion to Savagery and the Idea of Human Nature.” Reading Swift: Papers from the Fourth Münster Symposium on Jonathan Swift. Ed. Hermann J. Real and Helgard Stöver-Leidig. München : Fink, 2003. 363-76.
Tracy, Clarence. “The Unity of Gulliver’s Travels.” Queen’s Quarterly 68 (1962): 597-609.
Tuveson, Ernest, ed. Swift: A Collection of Critical Essays: Twentieth-Century Views. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice, 1964.
Urdang, Laurence, and Frederick G. Ruffner, Jr., eds. “Cannibalism.” Allusion: Cutural, Literary, Biblical, and Historical: A Thematic Dictionary. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1986. 95-96.
Visconsi, Elliott. “A Degenerate Race: English Barbarism in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko and The Widow Ranter.” ELH 69 (2002): 673-701.
Wang, An-qi. Gulliver’s Travels and Ching-hua Yuan Revisited: A Menippean Approach. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.
Watkins, W. B. C. Perilous Balance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1939.
Wedel, T. O. “On the Philosophical Background of Gulliver’s Travels.” Studies in Philology 23 (1926): 434-50.
Wey-Gómez, Nicolás. “Cannibalism as Defacement: Columbus’s Account of the Fourth Voyage.” Journal of Hispanic Philology 16.2 (1992): 195-208.
Wheeler, Roxann. “Limited Visions of Africa: Geographies of Savagery and Civility in Early Eighteenth Century Narratives.” Writes of Passage: Reading Travel Writing. Ed. James Duncan and Derek Gregory. London: Routledge, 1999.14-48.
White, Hayden. “‘Figuring the Nature of the Times Deceased’: Literary Theory and Historical Writing.” The Future of Literary Theory. Ed. Ralph Cohen. New York: Routledge, 1989. 19-43.
---. “The Forms of Wildness: Archaeology of an Idea.” Dudley and Novak 3-38.
Wiener, Gary, ed. Readings on Gulliver’s Travels. San Diego: Greenhaven, 2000.
Williams, Kathleen, ed. Swift: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge, 1970.
Zirker, Herbert. “Horse Sense and Sensibility: Some Issues Concerning Utopian Understanding in Gulliver’s Travels.” Swift Studies 12 (1997): 85-98.