簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

回結果列表
研究生： 宋瑞文
Song, Rui-Wen
論文名稱： 於三維封裝技術中以鎳、鋅添加、晶粒改造及擴散控制強化電子構裝之機械可靠度
Enhancing the Mechanical Reliability of Electronic Packaging via Ni, Zn Doping, Grain Modification and Diffusion Control in 3D-IC Technology
指導教授： 杜正恭
Duh, Jenq-Gong
口試委員: 林光隆
Lin, Kwang-Lung
吳子嘉
Wu, Albert T.
陳智
Chen, Chih
宋振銘
Song, Jenn-Ming
學位類別： 博士
Doctor
系所名稱： 工學院 - 材料科學工程學系
Materials Science and Engineering
論文出版年： 2021
畢業學年度： 109
語文別： 英文
論文頁數： 164
中文關鍵詞： 電子構裝 、低溫焊料 、三維封裝
相關次數： 點閱：3  下載：0 
分享至:
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報

    • 本研究之目標為探討強化三維封裝技術可靠度之方法；其中包含封裝之前段與後段製程。本研究包含透過元素添加以達成穩定的低溫銲料微銲點接合、以元素擴散控制減少接點缺陷、以熱壓接合進行精粒改造及強化。
    透過鋅之添加，可透過晶粒改造，強化典型的銅/錫/銅熱壓接合之微銲點結構。另外，於未來之低溫接合方面，銅/錫鉍/銅之結構亦可透過鋅之添加達到抑制過度反應、保留錫相之效果。
    於尺度較大之後段封裝中，本研究運用熱壓接合製程，達到晶粒結構之改變與銅核球銲點之強化。此方式與前段封裝中的微銲點熱壓接合強化具有高度相似之處。
    最後，本研究透過添加元素，控制低溫微銲點之交互擴散，達到減少孔洞缺陷之效果。本研究中探討之方法分別包括透過製程與元素添加，進行擴散控制或晶粒控制。上述方法之整合運用可望進一步強化未來三維電子封裝之可靠度。

    This work intends to explore possible methods to improve the overall 3D-IC and 3D packaging reliability, both at the front-end and back-end. The relating methods include stabilized low-temperature bonding via element doping, elemental diffusion control to decrease defects, and thermocompression for grain modification.
    With the aid of Zn, the conventional Cu/Sn/Cu structure could be strengthened and utilized in near future. Moreover, Cu/Sn-Bi/Cu is another promising bonding structure. Through Zn doping, the low-temperature microbump bonding was achieved as well as retaining the compliant Sn after reaction.
    In the back-end packaging domain, at the scale of BGA or micro-BGA, the implementation of Cu-core solder ball and pressurized bonding also increased mechanical strength and possibly electromigration resistance. Also, the tight space between Cu-core solder and substrate resembles that in microbumps.
    Finally, methods to reduce the defects in microbumps via diffusion control was proposed in this work, while keeping the low-temperature bonding property of Cu/In/Cu. The inhibition of voids may increase conductivity and strength of microbumps. In the future, all the concepts in this study may be expanded or integrated for even better reliability in 3D electronic packaging.

    摘 要 i Abstract ii Contents iii List of Tables vii Figure Captions viii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Motivations and objectives in this study 2 1.2.1 Suppressing interfacial voids in Cu/In/Cu microbump with Sn and Cu addition 5 1.2.2 IMC suppression and phase stabilization of Cu/Sn-Bi/Cu microbump via Zn doping 6 1.2.3 Increasing mechanical strength and refining grains of Cu-core solder joints with pressurized bonding 7 1.2.4 Enhancing mechanical strength of full intermetallic microbump via grain refinement by Zn in thermocompression bonding 8 Chapter 2 Literature Review 10 2.1 Electronic packaging 10 2.1.1 Flip-chip ball grid array 12 2.1.2 Three-dimensional integrated circuit 12 2.1.3 Molded core embedded package 13 2.2 Solder bumps 14 2.2.1 Lead-free Sn-based solders 15 2.2.2 Minor doping in SAC solders 16 2.2.3 Cu doping in solders 16 2.2.4 Zn doping in solders 17 2.2.5 Copper-core solder 18 2.2.6 Low temperature solders 18 2.3 Under bump metallization & General metallization 19 2.3.1 Organic surface preservative Cu (OSP Cu) & Cu-based metallization 20 2.3.2 Electroless nickel immersion gold 21 2.3.3 Electrodeposited Ni 21 2.3.4 Novel Cu-Zn metallization 22 2.4 Metallurgical reactions in solder joints 22 2.4.1 Metallurgical reactions between lead-free Sn-based solders and Cu-based UBM 23 2.4.2 Metallurgical reactions between lead-free Sn-based solders and Ni-based UBM 23 2.4.3 Effect of Ni on metallurgical reactions in lead-free tin-based solder joints 25 2.5 Crystallographic and grain structure of Cu6Sn5-based IMCs in Sn-based solders 27 2.5.1 Crystal structure of Cu6Sn5 27 2.5.2 Grain structure of Cu6Sn5 27 2.6 Microbump/ Transient-liquid-phase bonding 28 2.6.1 Interfacial reaction in microbump 28 2.6.2 Electromigration (EM) resistance 29 2.6.3 Thermomigration-assisted bonding 30 2.6.4 Thermocompression bonding (TCB) 30 2.6.5 Shear mechanical property 31 2.7 Reliability tests of solder joints 32 2.7.1 Solder ball shear tests 32 2.7.2 Die shear tests of micro-joints and full-intermetallic bonding 33 Chapter 3 Experimental Design 55 3.1 Suppressing interfacial voids in Cu/In/Cu microbump with Sn and Cu addition 55 3.2 IMC suppression and phase stabilization of Cu/Sn-Bi/Cu microbump via Zn doping 55 3.3 Increasing mechanical strength and refining grains of Cu-core solder joints with pressurized bonding 56 3.4 Enhancing mechanical strength of full intermetallic microbump via grain refinement by Zn in thermocompression bonding 57 Chapter 4 Result and Discussion 60 4.1 Suppressing Interfacial Voids in Cu/In/Cu Microbump with Sn and Cu Addition 60 4.2 IMC Suppression and Phase Stabilization of Cu/Sn-Bi/Cu microbump via Zn doping 69 4.3 Increasing Mechanical Strength and Refining Grains of Cu-core Solder Joints with Pressurized Bonding 78 4.4 Enhancing Mechanical Strength of Full Intermetallic Microbump via Grain Refinement by Zn in Thermocompression Bonding 95 4.4.1 Microstructure and Grain Structure 95 4.4.2 Mechanical Performance 98 4.4.3 Short Summary 102 Chapter 5 Conclusion 115 Appendix I Cu-Zn Electrodeposition 117 Appendix II The Inhibition of Large Primary Ag3Sn in Cu/Sn-3.5Ag/Ni-Au Microbump by Pd Addition 120 Reference 141 Publication List 162

    1. Moore, G.E., Cramming more components onto integrated circuits, Reprinted from Electronics, volume 38, number 8, April 19, 1965, pp.114 ff. IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter, 2006. 11(3): p. 33-35.
    2. Pangracious, V., Z. Marrakchi, and H. Mehrez, Three-Dimensional Integration: A More Than Moore Technology, in Three-Dimensional Design Methodologies for Tree-based FPGA Architecture, V. Pangracious, Z. Marrakchi, and H. Mehrez, Editors. 2015, Springer International Publishing: Cham. p. 13-41.
    3. Kim, J., et al. Highly Integrated SIP for Mobile Device. in 2019 International Wafer Level Packaging Conference (IWLPC). 2019.
    4. Ingerly, D.B., et al. Foveros: 3D Integration and the use of Face-to-Face Chip Stacking for Logic Devices. in 2019 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM). 2019.
    5. Prasad, C., et al. Silicon Reliability Characterization of Intel’s Foveros 3D Integration Technology for Logic-on-Logic Die Stacking. in 2020 IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium (IRPS). 2020.
    6. Lau, J.H., Heterogeneous Integrations. 2019, Springer. p. 1-61.
    7. Lau, J.H., Evolution, challenge, and outlook of TSV, 3D IC integration and 3d silicon integration, in 2011 International Symposium on Advanced Packaging Materials (APM). 2011. p. 462-488.
    8. Tu, K.N., Reliability challenges in 3D IC packaging technology. Microelectronics Reliability, 2011. 51(3): p. 517-523.
    9. Baklanov, M.R., P.S. Ho, and E. Zschech, Advanced Interconnects for ULSI Technology. 2012.
    10. Handbook of lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic AssembIies, K.J. Puttlitz and K.A. Stalter, Editors. 2004, Marcel Dekker, Inc. p. 1-147.
    11. Laurila, T., V. Vuorinen, and M. Paulasto-Kröckel, Impurity and alloying effects on interfacial reaction layers in Pb-free soldering. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 2010. 68(1-2): p. 1-38.
    12. Wang, F., et al., Recent progress on the development of Sn–Bi based low-temperature Pb-free solders. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2019. 30(4): p. 3222-3243.
    13. Morris, J.W., J.L.F. Goldstein, and Z. Mei, Microstructure and mechanical properties of Sn-In and Sn-Bi solders. JOM, 1993. 45(7): p. 25-27.
    14. Chandra Rao, B.S.S., et al., Morphology and mechanical properties of intermetallic compounds in SnAgCu solder joints. Microelectronic Engineering, 2010. 87(11): p. 2416-2422.
    15. Jeong, H., et al., Mechanical Properties of Cu-Core Solder Balls with ENEPIG Surface Finish. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2020. 49(10): p. 6073-6079.
    16. Fleshman, C., et al., Phase identification and interface evolution of ENIG/Cu-core SAC305/ENIG solder joints after the thermal-electrical coupling reliability test. Materials Letters, 2020. 275: p. 128104.
    17. Lau, J.H., Heterogeneous Integrations. 2019, Springer. p. 209.
    18. Fujiwara, S., et al., Electromigration in Copper-Core Solder Ball Joints During Thermal Cycle Tests, in ASME 2011 Pacific Rim Technical Conference and Exhibition on Packaging and Integration of Electronic and Photonic Systems, MEMS and NEMS: Volume 2. 2011: Portland, Oregon, USA. p. 719-723.
    19. Kim, Y., et al., Improved reliability of copper-cored solder joints under a harsh thermal cycling condition. Microelectronics Reliability, 2012. 52(7): p. 1441-1444.
    20. Chuang, H.Y., et al., Critical Concerns in Soldering Reactions Arising from Space Confinement in 3-D IC Packages. IEEE Transactions on Device and Materials Reliability, 2012. 12(2): p. 233-240.
    21. Chen, H., et al. Electromigration immortality of purely intermetallic micro -bump for 3D integration. in 2015 IEEE 65th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2015.
    22. Sun, L., M.-h. Chen, and L. Zhang, Microstructure evolution and grain orientation of IMC in Cu-Sn TLP bonding solder joints. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2019. 786: p. 677-687.
    23. Zhou, J.Y., et al. Three-dimensional Simulation of Effects of Electro-Thermo-Mechanical Multi-physical Fields on Cu Protrusion and Performance of Micro-bump Joints in TSVs Based High Bandwidth Memory (HBM) Structures. in 2020 IEEE 70th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2020.
    24. Xiong, M.-Y., et al., Stress analysis and structural optimization of 3-D IC package based on the Taguchi method. Soldering & Surface Mount Technology, 2019. 32(1): p. 42-47.
    25. Yazzie, K.E., et al., On the relationship between solder-controlled and intermetallic compound (IMC)-controlled fracture in Sn-based solder joints. Scripta Materialia, 2012. 66(8): p. 586-589.
    26. Choudhury, S.F. and L. Ladani, Local shear stress-strain response of Sn-3.5Ag/Cu solder joint with high fraction of intermetallic compounds: Experimental analysis. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016. 680: p. 665-676.
    27. Kino, H., T. Fukushima, and T. Tanaka. Remarkable Suppression of Local Stress in 3D IC by Manganese Nitride-Based Filler with Large Negative CTE. in 2017 IEEE 67th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2017.
    28. S. P, L.I.M., et al. Challenges and Approaches of 2.5D high density Flip chip interconnect on through mold interposer. in 2018 IEEE 20th Electronics Packaging Technology Conference (EPTC). 2018.
    29. Lee, C., H. Liu, and C. Wang. Intrinsic Stress Effect of Fabricated Processes on the Warpage and Microbump Reliability of Thin-Type 3D-ICs Packaging. in 2018 20th International Conference on Electronic Materials and Packaging (EMAP). 2018.
    30. Ko, C.-T. and K.-N. Chen, Low temperature bonding technology for 3D integration. Microelectronics Reliability, 2012. 52(2): p. 302-311.
    31. Wojewoda-Budka, J. and P. Zięba, Formation and growth of intermetallic phases in diffusion soldered Cu/In–Bi/Cu interconnections. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2009. 476(1): p. 164-171.
    32. Bickel, S., et al. Cu-In fine-pitch-interconnects: influence of processing conditions on the interconnection quality. in 2018 7th Electronic System-Integration Technology Conference (ESTC). 2018.
    33. Sommadossi, S. and A.F. Guillermet, Interface reaction systematics in the Cu/In–48Sn/Cu system bonded by diffusion soldering. Intermetallics, 2007. 15(7): p. 912-917.
    34. Tian, F., P.-J. Shang, and Z.-Q. Liu, Precise Cr-marker investigation on the reactive interface in the eutectic SnIn solder joint. Materials Letters, 2014. 121: p. 185-187.
    35. Liu, X.J., et al., Experimental determination and thermodynamic calculation of the phase equilibria in the Cu-In-Sn system. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2001. 30(9): p. 1093-1103.
    36. Alam, M.O., Y.C. Chan, and K.N. Tu, Effect of 0.5 wt % Cu addition in Sn–3.5%Ag solder on the dissolution rate of Cu metallization. Journal of Applied Physics, 2003. 94(12): p. 7904-7909.
    37. Zhou, S., et al., The newly developed Sn–Bi–Zn alloy with a low melting point, improved ductility, and high ultimate tensile strength. Materialia, 2019. 6: p. 100300.
    38. Ghosh, G., Elastic properties, hardness, and indentation fracture toughness of intermetallics relevant to electronic packaging. Journal of Materials Research, 2011. 19(5): p. 1439-1454.
    39. Yang, S.C., et al., Analysis and Experimental Verification of the Volume Effect in the Reaction Between Zn-Doped Solders and Cu. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2008. 37(10): p. 1591-1597.
    40. Luef, C., et al., Thermodynamic Properties and Melting Behavior of Bi–Sn–Zn Alloys. Monatshefte für Chemie / Chemical Monthly, 2006. 137(4): p. 381-395.
    41. Zou, H.F., Q.K. Zhang, and Z.F. Zhang, Eliminating interfacial segregation and embrittlement of bismuth in SnBi/Cu joint by alloying Cu substrate. Scripta Materialia, 2009. 61(3): p. 308-311.
    42. Yu, C.-Y., W.-Y. Chen, and J.-G. Duh, Improving the impact toughness of Sn–Ag–Cu/Cu–Zn Pb-free solder joints under high speed shear testing. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2014. 586: p. 633-638.
    43. Lau, J.H., Heterogeneous Integration of PoP, in Heterogeneous Integrations, J.H. Lau, Editor. 2019, Springer Singapore: Singapore. p. 205-219.
    44. Chuang, H.Y., et al., Elimination of voids in reactions between Ni and Sn: A novel effect of silver. Scripta Materialia, 2012. 66(3): p. 171-174.
    45. Chu, K., Y. Sohn, and C. Moon, A comparative study of Cn/Sn/Cu and Ni/Sn/Ni solder joints for low temperature stable transient liquid phase bonding. Scripta Materialia, 2015. 109: p. 113-117.
    46. Agarwal, R., et al. High density Cu-Sn TLP bonding for 3D integration. in 2009 59th Electronic Components and Technology Conference. 2009.
    47. Clauberg, H., et al. High productivity thermocompression flip chip bonding. in 2015 IEEE 65th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2015.
    48. Sakuma, K., et al. An enhanced thermo-compression bonding process to address warpage in 3D integration of large die on organic substrates. in 2015 IEEE 65th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2015.
    49. Hah, J., et al., Comprehensive comparative analysis of microstructure of Sn–Ag–Cu (SAC) solder joints by traditional reflow and thermo-compression bonding (TCB) processes. Materialia, 2019. 6: p. 100327.
    50. Mu, D., et al., Growth orientations and mechanical properties of Cu6Sn5 and (Cu,Ni)6Sn5 on poly-crystalline Cu. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2012. 536: p. 38-46.
    51. Wu, J.Y., et al., Mechanical characterizations of single-crystalline (Cu, Ni)6Sn5 through uniaxial micro-compression. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2019. 753: p. 22-30.
    52. Chen, W.-Y., et al., Growth orientation of Cu–Sn IMC in Cu/Sn–3.5Ag/Cu–xZn microbumps and Zn-doped solder joints. Materials Letters, 2014. 134: p. 184-186.
    53. Ulrich, R.K. and W.D. Brown, Advanced Electronic Packaging (Second Edition). 2006, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 1-5.
    54. Ardebili, H., J. Zhang, and M.G. Pecht, 1 - Introduction, in Encapsulation Technologies for Electronic Applications (Second Edition), H. Ardebili, J. Zhang, and M.G. Pecht, Editors. 2019, William Andrew Publishing. p. 1-45.
    55. Ball Grid Array (BGA) advantages disadvantages and its types. Available from: https://www.raypcb.com/ball-grid-array-bga-advantages-disadvantages-and-its-types/.
    56. Miller, L.F., Controlled collapse reflow chip joining. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 2000. 44(1.2): p. 93-104.
    57. Advanced Flip Chip Packaging, H.-M. Tong, Y.-S. Lai, and C.P. Wong, Editors. 2013, Springer. p. 1-21.
    58. 3D Microelectronic Packaging From Fundamentals to Applications, Y. Li and D. Goyal, Editors. 2017, Springer. p. 1-15.
    59. Al-Sarawi, S.F., D. Abbott, and P.D. Franzon, A review of 3-D packaging technology. IEEE Transactions on Components, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology: Part B, 1998. 21(1): p. 2-14.
    60. Tanaka, K., et al., Development of Embedded Device Package, MCeP (Molded Core embedded Package). Journal of Japan Institute of Electronics Packaging, 2017. 20(6): p. 418-424.
    61. Tanaka, K., et al., Warpage and electrical performance of embedded device package, MCeP, in 2011 IEEE 61st Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2011. p. 1377-1383.
    62. Lee, T.-K., et al., Fundamentals of Lead-Free Solder Interconnect Technology, in Fundamentals of Lead-Free Solder Interconnect Technology. 2015, Springer. p. 21-50.
    63. Ma, D., W.D. Wang, and S.K. Lahiri, Scallop formation and dissolution of Cu–Sn intermetallic compound during solder reflow. Journal of Applied Physics, 2002. 91(5): p. 3312-3317.
    64. Anderson, I.E. and R.L. Terpstra, Lead-free solder. 2001.
    65. Round Robin Testing and Analysisof Lead Free Solder Pastes withAlloys of Tin, Silver and Copper Available from: http://www.ipc.org/3.0_Industry/3.5_Councils_Associations/3.5.1_Industry_Assoc/spvc_bro/SVPC_Final_ExecSumm.pdf.
    66. Azlina, O.S., et al., Effect of Solder Volume on Interfacial Reaction between SAC405 Solders and EN(B)EPIG Surface Finish. Advanced Materials Research, 2013. 845: p. 76-80.
    67. Nguyen, T.T., D. Yu, and S.B. Park, Characterizing the Mechanical Properties of Actual SAC105, SAC305, and SAC405 Solder Joints by Digital Image Correlation. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2011. 40(6): p. 1409-1415.
    68. Neilsen, M. and P. Vianco, Unified Creep Plasticity Damage (UCPD) Model for SAC396 Solder, in Volume 1: Advanced Packaging; Emerging Technologies; Modeling and Simulation; Multi-Physics Based Reliability; MEMS and NEMS; Materials and Processes. 2013.
    69. Bhat, K.N., K.N. Prabhu, and Satyanarayan, Effect of reflow temperature and substrate roughness on wettability, IMC growth and shear strength of SAC387/Cu bonds. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2013. 25(2): p. 864-872.
    70. Fleshman, C. and J.-G. Duh, The Variation of Microstructure and the Improvement of Shear Strength in SAC1205-xNi/OSP Cu Solder Joints Before and After Aging. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2019. 49(1): p. 196-201.
    71. Wu, M.-L. and J.-S. Lan, Prediction of Fatigue Resistance in Lead-Free Ni-Doped SAC 1205 Solder Alloys Using a Rate-Dependent Material Model and Subjected to Drop Tests. IEEE Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology, 2018. 8(10): p. 1777-1787.
    72. Zhu, W.H., et al., Drop reliability study of PBGA assemblies with SAC305, SAC105 and SAC105-Ni solder ball on Cu-OSP and ENIG surface finish, in 2008 58th Electronic Components and Technology Conference. 2008. p. 1667-1672.
    73. Coyle, R., et al., The effect of nickel microalloying on thermal fatigue reliability and microstructure of SAC105 and SAC205 solders, in 2014 IEEE 64th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2014. p. 425-440.
    74. Terashima, S., et al., Effect of silver content on thermal fatigue life of Sn-xAg-0.5Cu flip-chip interconnects. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2003. 32(12): p. 1527-1533.
    75. Kim, H., et al., Improved Drop Reliability Performance with Lead Free Solders of Low Ag Content and Their Failure Modes, in 2007 Proceedings 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference. 2007. p. 962-967.
    76. Liu, W. and N.-C. Lee, The effects of additives to SnAgCu alloys on microstructure and drop impact reliability of solder joints. Jom, 2007. 59(7): p. 26-31.
    77. Miller, C.M., I.E. Anderson, and J.F. Smith, A viable tin-lead solder substitute: Sn-Ag-Cu. Journal of Electronic Materials, 1994. 23(7): p. 595-601.
    78. Kim, K.S., S.H. Huh, and K. Suganuma, Effects of fourth alloying additive on microstructures and tensile properties of Sn–Ag–Cu alloy and joints with Cu. Microelectronics Reliability, 2003. 43(2): p. 259-267.
    79. El-Daly, A.A., et al., Microstructure, mechanical properties, and deformation behavior of Sn–1.0Ag–0.5Cu solder after Ni and Sb additions. Materials & Design, 2013. 43: p. 40-49.
    80. Yu, C.-Y., et al., Effects of Minor Ni Doping on Microstructural Variations and Interfacial Reactions in Cu/Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu-xNi/Au/Ni Sandwich Structures. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2010. 39(12): p. 2544-2552.
    81. Fleshman, C., et al., The variation of grain structure and the enhancement of shear strength in SAC305-0.1Ni/OSP Cu solder joint. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2017. 189: p. 76-79.
    82. Kinyanjui, R., et al., Effect of Sample Size on the Solidification Temperature and Microstructure of SnAgCu Near Eutectic Alloys. Journal of Materials Research, 2011. 20(11): p. 2914-2918.
    83. Alam, M.E., S.M.L. Nai, and M. Gupta, Effect of Amount of Cu on the Intermetallic Layer Thickness Between Sn-Cu Solders and Cu Substrates. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2009. 38(12): p. 2479.
    84. Yoon, J., B. Noh, and S. Jung, Comparison of Interfacial Stability of Pb-Free Solders (Sn—3.5Ag, Sn—3.5Ag—0.7Cu, and Sn—0.7Cu) on ENIG-Plated Cu During Aging. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, 2010. 33(1): p. 64-70.
    85. Alam, M.O., et al., Effect of 0.5 wt % Cu in Sn−3.5%Ag Solder Balls on the Solid State Interfacial Reaction with Au/Ni/Cu Bond Pads for Ball Grid Array (BGA) Applications. Chemistry of Materials, 2005. 17(9): p. 2223-2226.
    86. Bi, X., et al., Effect of Cu additions on mechanical properties of Ni3Sn4-based intermetallic compounds: First-principles calculations and nano-indentation measurements. Vacuum, 2019. 164: p. 7-14.
    87. Kang, S.K., et al., Controlling Ag3Sn plate formation in near-ternary-eutectic Sn-Ag-Cu solder by minor Zn alloying. JOM, 2004. 56(6): p. 34.
    88. Shen, J., et al., Formation of bulk Ag3Sn intermetallic compounds in Sn-Ag lead-free solders in solidification. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2005. 34(12): p. 1591-1597.
    89. Chen, W.-Y., et al., Retarding the Cu–Sn and Ag–Sn intermetallic compounds by applying Cu–xZn alloy on micro-bump in novel 3D-IC technologies. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2015. 26(4): p. 2357-2362.
    90. Cho, M.G., et al., Effects of Minor Additions of Zn on Interfacial Reactions of Sn-Ag-Cu and Sn-Cu Solders with Various Cu Substrates during Thermal Aging. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2007. 36(11): p. 1501-1509.
    91. SMIC Products. Available from: https://www.senju.com/en/products/ecosolder/ball/.
    92. Cu cored solder ball | Hitachi Metals Neomaterial, Ltd. .
    93. Hisada, T., et al., Flip Chip Joining with Quaternary Low Melting Temperature Solder Bump Fabricated with Injection Molded Solder. International Symposium on Microelectronics, 2019. 2019(1): p. 000103-000109.
    94. Pu, L., et al., Effect of adding Ag to the medium entropy SnBiIn alloy on intermetallic compound formation. Materials Letters, 2020. 272: p. 127891.
    95. Liu, Y., et al., A high-entropy alloy as very low melting point solder for advanced electronic packaging. Materials Today Advances, 2020. 7: p. 100101.
    96. Mei, Z. and J.W. Morris, Characterization of eutectic Sn-Bi solder joints. Journal of Electronic Materials, 1992. 21(6): p. 599-607.
    97. Mokler, S., et al. The application of Bi-based solders for low temperature reflow to reduce cost while improving SMT yields in client computing systems. in Proceedings of SMTA International. 2016.
    98. Liu, P.L. and J.K. Shang, Segregant-induced cavitation of Sn/Cu reactive interface. Scripta Materialia, 2005. 53(6): p. 631-634.
    99. Liu, P.L. and J.K. Shang, Interfacial embrittlement by bismuth segregation in copper/tin–bismuth Pb-free solder interconnect. Journal of Materials Research, 2001. 16(6): p. 1651-1659.
    100. Liu, P.L. and J.K. Shang, Fracture of SnBi/Ni(P) interfaces. Journal of Materials Research, 2005. 20(4): p. 818-826.
    101. Zhang, Q.K., H.F. Zou, and Z.F. Zhang, Influences of Substrate Alloying and Reflow Temperature on Bi Segregation Behaviors at Sn-Bi/Cu Interface. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2011. 40(11): p. 2320.
    102. Kim, J.-H., et al., Effect of surface finishes on electromigration reliability in eutectic Sn–58Bi solder joints. Microelectronic Engineering, 2014. 120: p. 77-84.
    103. Wang, F., et al., Electromigration behaviors in Sn–58Bi solder joints under different current densities and temperatures. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2018. 29(24): p. 21157-21169.
    104. Ruhmer, K., et al., Alternative UBM for Lead Free Solder Bumping using C4NP, in 2007 Proceedings 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference. 2007. p. 15-21.
    105. Dietz, G. and H.D. Schneider, Decomposition of crystalline ferromagnetic particles precipitated in amorphous paramagnetic Ni-P. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 1990. 2(9): p. 2169-2178.
    106. Jee, Y.K., et al., A comparative study of ENIG and Cu OSP surface finishes on the mechanical reliability of Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu and Sn-36.8Pb-0.4Ag Solders, in 2006 International Conference on Electronic Materials and Packaging. 2006. p. 1-9.
    107. Ho, C.Y., et al., Electrical Resistivity of Ten Selected Binary Alloy Systems. Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, 1983. 12(2): p. 183-322.
    108. Jensen, J.A.D., et al., Electrochemical Deposition of Buried Contacts in High-Efficiency Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cells. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2003. 150(1): p. G49.
    109. Yu, C.-Y., K.-J. Wang, and J.-G. Duh, Interfacial Reaction of Sn and Cu-xZn Substrates After Reflow and Thermal Aging. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2010. 39(2): p. 230-237.
    110. Yu, C.-Y. and J.-G. Duh, Growth mechanisms of interfacial intermetallic compounds in Sn/Cu–Zn solder joints during aging. Journal of Materials Science, 2012. 47(17): p. 6467-6474.
    111. Yang, S.C., et al., Massive spalling of intermetallic compounds in solder-substrate reactions due to limited supply of the active element. Journal of Applied Physics, 2007. 101(8): p. 084911.
    112. Yang, S.C., et al., Strong Zn concentration effect on the soldering reactions between Sn-based solders and Cu. Journal of Materials Research, 2006. 21(10): p. 2436-2439.
    113. Zhang, Q., H. Zou, and Z.-F. Zhang, Improving tensile and fatigue properties of Sn–58Bi/Cu solder joints through alloying substrate. Journal of Materials Research, 2010. 25(2): p. 303-314.
    114. Zeng, K. and K.N. Tu, Six cases of reliability study of Pb-free solder joints in electronic packaging technology. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 2002. 38(2): p. 55-105.
    115. Laurila, T., V. Vuorinen, and J.K. Kivilahti, Interfacial reactions between lead-free solders and common base materials. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 2005. 49(1-2): p. 1-60.
    116. Tz-Cheng, C., et al., Effect of thermal aging on board level drop reliability for Pb-free BGA packages, in 2004 Proceedings. 54th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37546). 2004. p. 1256-1262.
    117. Zeng, K., et al., Kirkendall void formation in eutectic SnPb solder joints on bare Cu and its effect on joint reliability. Journal of Applied Physics, 2005. 97(2).
    118. Liu, A.A., et al., Spalling of Cu6Sn5 spheroids in the soldering reaction of eutectic SnPb on Cr/Cu/Au thin films. Journal of Applied Physics, 1996. 80(5): p. 2774-2780.
    119. Jang, J.W., et al., Solder reaction-assisted crystallization of electroless Ni–P under bump metallization in low cost flip chip technology. Journal of Applied Physics, 1999. 85(12): p. 8456-8463.
    120. Young, B.-L. and J.-G. Duh, Interfacial reaction and microstructural evolution for electroplated Ni and electroless Ni in the under bump metallurgy with 42Sn58Bi solder during annealing. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2001. 30(7): p. 878-884.
    121. Kao, S.-T., Y.-C. Lin, and J.-G. Duh, Controlling intermetallic compound growth in SnAgCu/Ni-P solder joints by nanosized Cu6Sn5 addition. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2006. 35(3): p. 486-493.
    122. Lin, Y.-C. and J.-G. Duh, Optimal phosphorous content selection for the soldering reaction of Ni-P under bump metallization with Sn-Ag-Cu solder. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2006. 35(8): p. 1665-1671.
    123. Lin, Y.-C. and J.-G. Duh, Phase transformation of the phosphorus-rich layer in SnAgCu/Ni–P solder joints. Scripta Materialia, 2006. 54(9): p. 1661-1665.
    124. Lin, Y.-C., J.-G. Duh, and B.-S. Chiou, Wettability of electroplated Ni-P in under bump metallurgy with Sn-Ag-Cu solder. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2006. 35(1): p. 7-14.
    125. Lin, Y.-C., et al., Morphological and Microstructural Evolution of Phosphorous-Rich Layer in SnAgCu/Ni-P UBM Solder Joint. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2007. 36(11): p. 1469-1475.
    126. Lin, Y.-C., et al., Suppressing Ni–Sn–P growth in SnAgCu/Ni–P solder joints. Scripta Materialia, 2007. 56(1): p. 49-52.
    127. Lin, Y.-C., K.-J. Wang, and J.-G. Duh, Detailed Phase Evolution of a Phosphorous-Rich Layer and Formation of the Ni-Sn-P Compound in Sn-Ag-Cu/Electroplated Ni-P Solder Joints. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2009. 39(3): p. 283-294.
    128. He, M., Z. Chen, and G. Qi, Solid state interfacial reaction of Sn–37Pb and Sn–3.5Ag solders with Ni–P under bump metallization. Acta Materialia, 2004. 52(7): p. 2047-2056.
    129. He, M., et al., Intermetallic compound formation between Sn–3.5Ag solder and Ni-based metallization during liquid state reaction. Thin Solid Films, 2004. 462-463: p. 376-383.
    130. Kumar, A., et al., Effect of Ni–P thickness on solid-state interfacial reactions between Sn–3.5Ag solder and electroless Ni–P metallization on Cu substrate. Thin Solid Films, 2006. 504(1-2): p. 410-415.
    131. Sohn, Y.C., et al., Spalling of intermetallic compounds during the reaction between lead-free solders and electroless Ni-P metallization. Journal of Materials Research, 2011. 19(8): p. 2428-2436.
    132. Laurila, T., et al., Analysis of the redeposition of AuSn4 on Ni/Au contact pads when using SnPbAg, SnAg, and SnAgCu solders. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2005. 34(1): p. 103-111.
    133. Chung, C.K., et al., Origin and evolution of voids in electroless Ni during soldering reaction. Acta Materialia, 2012. 60(11): p. 4586-4593.
    134. Wang, X. and C.K. Chung, Mechanisms and solutions to the brittle solder joint in electroless Ni plating. Microelectronics Reliability, 2016. 65: p. 173-177.
    135. Sohn, Y., Effect of Morphological Change of Ni3Sn4 Intermetallic Compounds on the Growth Kinetics in Electroless Ni-P/Sn-3.5Ag Solder Joint. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2020. 51(6): p. 2905-2914.
    136. Chen, S.-W., S.-H. Wu, and S.-W. Lee, Interfacial reactions in the Sn-(Cu)/Ni, Sn-(Ni)/Cu, and Sn/(Cu,Ni) systems. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2003. 32(11): p. 1188-1194.
    137. Tsai, J.Y., et al., A study on the reaction between Cu and Sn3.5Ag solder doped with small amounts of Ni. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2003. 32(11): p. 1203-1208.
    138. Chuang, C.-M., P.-C. Shih, and K.-L. Lin, Mechanical strength of Sn-3.5Ag-based solders and related bondings. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2004. 33(1): p. 1-6.
    139. Anderson, I.E. and J.L. Harringa, Suppression of void coalescence in thermal aging of tin-silver-copper-X solder joints. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2006. 35(1): p. 94-106.
    140. Wang, Y.W., C.C. Chang, and C.R. Kao, Minimum effective Ni addition to SnAgCu solders for retarding Cu3Sn growth. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2009. 478(1): p. L1-L4.
    141. Zhang, X., et al., Effect of Ni addition to the Cu substrate on the interfacial reaction and IMC growth with Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu solder. Applied Physics A, 2018. 124(4): p. 315.
    142. Gao, F., T. Takemoto, and H. Nishikawa, Effects of Co and Ni addition on reactive diffusion between Sn–3.5Ag solder and Cu during soldering and annealing. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2006. 420(1): p. 39-46.
    143. Mehreen, S.U., et al., Suppression of Cu3Sn in the Sn-10Cu peritectic alloy by the addition of Ni. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2018. 766: p. 1003-1013.
    144. Laurila, T., V. Vuorinen, and J.K. Kivilahti, Interfacial reactions between lead-free solders and common base materials. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 2005. 49(1): p. 1-60.
    145. Hao, Y., V. Vuorinen, and J. Kivilahti, Effect of Ni on the Formation of Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn Intermetallics, in 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference 2006. 2006. p. 1204-1209.
    146. Kodentsov, A., et al., Formation of intermetallic compounds in reaction between Cu–Ni alloys and solid Sn – a new look at the prominent effect of Ni. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021. 858: p. 157677.
    147. Subramanian, K.N., Lead-Free Electronic Solders. 2007, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. p. 159.
    148. Wang, S.J. and C.Y. Liu, Asymmetrical solder microstructure in Ni/Sn/Cu solder joint. Scripta Materialia, 2006. 55(4): p. 347-350.
    149. Wang, S.J. and C.Y. Liu, Kinetic analysis of the interfacial reactions in Ni/Sn/Cu sandwich structures. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2006. 35(11): p. 1955-1960.
    150. Hsu, Y., et al. Tailoring the Cu6Sn5 layer texture with Ni additions in Sn-Ag-Cu based solder joints. in 2018 7th Electronic System-Integration Technology Conference (ESTC). 2018.
    151. Gao, F. and T. Takemoto, Effects of addition participation in the interfacial reaction on the growth patterns of Cu6Sn5-based IMCs during reflow process. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2006. 421(1-2): p. 283-288.
    152. Cheng, H.-K., et al., Interfacial reactions between Cu and SnAgCu solder doped with minor Ni. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2015. 622: p. 529-534.
    153. Gur, D. and M. Bamberger, Reactive isothermal solidification in the Ni–Sn system. Acta Materialia, 1998. 46(14): p. 4917-4923.
    154. Ho, C.E., et al., Effect of Cu concentration on the reactions between Sn-Ag-Cu solders and Ni. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2002. 31(6): p. 584-590.
    155. Yu, C.-Y. and J.-G. Duh, Stabilization of hexagonal Cu6(Sn,Zn)5 by minor Zn doping of Sn-based solder joints. Scripta Materialia, 2011. 65(9): p. 783-786.
    156. Saunders, N. and A. Miodownik, The Cu-Sn (copper-tin) system. Bulletin of Alloy Phase Diagrams, 1990. 11(3): p. 278-287.
    157. Nogita, K., Stabilisation of Cu6Sn5 by Ni in Sn-0.7Cu-0.05Ni lead-free solder alloys. Intermetallics, 2010. 18(1): p. 145-149.
    158. Zeng, G., et al., Phase stability and thermal expansion behavior of Cu6Sn5 intermetallics doped with Zn, Au and In. Intermetallics, 2013. 43: p. 85-98.
    159. Yang, M., et al., Cu6Sn5 Morphology Transition and Its Effect on Mechanical Properties of Eutectic Sn-Ag Solder Joints. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2011. 40(2): p. 176-188.
    160. Gusak, A.M., K.N. Tu, and C. Chen, Extremely rapid grain growth in scallop-type Cu6Sn5 during solid–liquid interdiffusion reactions in micro-bump solder joints. Scripta Materialia, 2020. 179: p. 45-48.
    161. Gusak, A.M. and K.N. Tu, Kinetic theory of flux-driven ripening. Physical Review B, 2002. 66(11): p. 115403.
    162. Choudhury, S.F. and L. Ladani, Grain Growth Orientation and Anisotropy in Cu6Sn5 Intermetallic: Nanoindentation and Electron Backscatter Diffraction Analysis. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2014. 43(4): p. 996-1004.
    163. Mu, D., et al., Investigating the mechanical properties, creep and crack pattern of Cu6Sn5 and (Cu,Ni)6Sn5 on diverse crystal planes. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2013. 566: p. 126-133.
    164. Mu, D., H. Huang, and K. Nogita, Anisotropic mechanical properties of Cu6Sn5 and (Cu,Ni)6Sn5. Materials Letters, 2012. 86: p. 46-49.
    165. Chen, W.-Y., R.-W. Song, and J.-G. Duh, Grain structure modification of Cu-Sn IMCs by applying Cu-Zn UBM on transient liquid-phase bonding in novel 3D-IC technologies. Intermetallics, 2017. 85: p. 170-175.
    166. Zhao, H.Y., et al., A Comparative Study on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn Joints Formed by TLP Soldering With/Without the Assistance of Ultrasonic Waves. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2018. 49(7): p. 2739-2749.
    167. Chang, Y.-W., et al., A new failure mechanism of electromigration by surface diffusion of Sn on Ni and Cu metallization in microbumps. Scientific Reports, 2018. 8(1): p. 5935.
    168. Lin, Y.-M., et al. Electromigration in Ni/Sn intermetallic micro bump joint for 3D IC chip stacking. in 2011 IEEE 61st Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2011. IEEE.
    169. Wang, Y., et al. Effect of intermetallic formation on electromigration reliability of TSV-microbump joints in 3D interconnect. in 2012 IEEE 62nd Electronic Components and Technology Conference. 2012. IEEE.
    170. Yang, T.L., et al., Full intermetallic joints for chip stacking by using thermal gradient bonding. Acta Materialia, 2016. 113: p. 90-97.
    171. Yin, Z., F. Sun, and M. Guo, The fast formation of full Cu3Sn solder joints in Cu/Sn/Cu system by thermal gradient bonding. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2019. 30(3): p. 2146-2153.
    172. Yoon, S.W., et al. Fabrication and packaging of microbump interconnections for 3D TSV. in 2009 IEEE International Conference on 3D System Integration. 2009.
    173. Laor, A., et al., Monitoring of thermo-mechanical stress via CMOS sensor array: Effects of warpage and tilt in flip chip thermo-compression bonding. Microelectronics Reliability, 2017. 73: p. 60-68.
    174. Lee, C., et al. Characterization and reliability assessment of solder microbumps and assembly for 3D IC integration. in 2011 IEEE 61st Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2011.
    175. Yu, J.J., et al. Choice of Intermetallic Compounds for Structural Applications in Near Submicron Joints. in 2016 IEEE 66th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2016.
    176. Liu, L., et al., Micro-mechanical and fracture characteristics of Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn intermetallic compounds under micro-cantilever bending. Intermetallics, 2016. 76: p. 10-17.
    177. Yao, P., et al., Shear strength and fracture mechanism for full Cu-Sn IMCs solder joints with different Cu3Sn proportion and joints with conventional interfacial structure in electronic packaging. Soldering & Surface Mount Technology, 2019. 31(1): p. 6-19.
    178. Panchenko, I., et al., Degradation of Cu6Sn5 intermetallic compound by pore formation in solid–liquid interdiffusion Cu/Sn microbump interconnects. Microelectronic Engineering, 2014. 117: p. 26-34.
    179. Chiu, W.-L., et al., Formation of nearly void-free Cu3Sn intermetallic joints using nanotwinned Cu metallization. Applied Physics Letters, 2014. 104(17): p. 171902.
    180. Wang, Y., D.T. Chu, and K. Tu. Porous Cu3Sn formation in Cu-Sn IMC-based micro-joints. in 2016 IEEE 66th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2016.
    181. Lin, H.-M., et al., Interfacial reaction and mechanical evaluation in multi-level assembly joints with ENEPIG under bump metallization via drop and high speed impact test. Microelectronics Reliability, 2015. 55(1): p. 231-237.
    182. Chen, W.-L., et al., Effects of thermal annealing in the post-reflow process on microstructure, tin crystallography, and impact reliability of Sn–Ag–Cu solder joints. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2014. 613: p. 193-200.
    183. Yu, C.-Y., et al., Enhancement of the impact toughness in Sn–Ag–Cu/Cu solder joints via modifying the microstructure of solder alloy. Materials Letters, 2014. 119: p. 20-23.
    184. Ho, C.-Y., et al., Microstructural variation and high-speed impact responses of Sn–3.0Ag–0.5Cu/ENEPIG solder joints with ultra-thin Ni–P deposit. Journal of Materials Science, 2012. 48(6): p. 2724-2732.
    185. Fu, S.-W., et al., Impact crack propagation through the dual-phased (Cu,Ni)6Sn5 layer in Sn–Ag–Cu/Ni solder joints. Materials Letters, 2012. 80: p. 103-105.
    186. Fleshman, C., R.-w. Song, and J.-G. Duh, Improving shear test performance of SAC305/OSP Cu solder joints by modifying microstructure with minor Ni doping before and after aging. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2020. 245.
    187. Chen, W.-Y. and J.-G. Duh, Suppression of Cu3Sn layer and formation of multi-orientation IMCs during thermal aging in Cu/Sn–3.5Ag/Cu–15Zn transient liquid-phase bonding in novel 3D-IC Technologies. Materials Letters, 2017. 186: p. 279-282.
    188. Kim, J., et al., Oxidation and Repeated-Bending Properties of Sn-Based Solder Joints After Highly Accelerated Stress Testing (HAST). Electronic Materials Letters, 2018. 14(6): p. 678-688.
    189. Chen, C., H.M. Tong, and K.N. Tu, Electromigration and Thermomigration in Pb-Free Flip-Chip Solder Joints. Annual Review of Materials Research, 2010. 40(1): p. 531-555.
    190. Chang, Y.W., et al., Electromigration Mechanism of Failure in Flip-Chip Solder Joints Based on Discrete Void Formation. Sci Rep, 2017. 7(1): p. 17950.
    191. Chan, Y.C. and D. Yang, Failure mechanisms of solder interconnects under current stressing in advanced electronic packages. Progress in Materials Science, 2010. 55(5): p. 428-475.
    192. Chen, H., et al., Investigating the Effect of Ag Content on Mechanical Properties of Sn-Ag-Cu Micro-BGA Joints. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2019. 48(10): p. 6866-6871.
    193. JEDEC, JESD22-B117A. October 2006.
    194. Anderson, I.E., et al., Microstructural modifications and properties of Sn-Ag-Cu solder joints induced by alloying. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2002. 31(11): p. 1166-1174.
    195. Mutuku, F., B. Arfaei, and E.J. Cotts, The Influence of Processing on Strengthening Mechanisms in Pb-Free Solder Joints. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2017. 46(4): p. 2067-2079.
    196. Ren, N., et al., IMCs Microstructure Evolution Dependence of Mechanical Properties for Ni/Sn/Ni Micro Solder-Joints. Materials, 2020. 13(1).
    197. Bajwa, A.A., et al. Heterogeneous Integration at Fine Pitch (≤ 10 µm) Using Thermal Compression Bonding. in 2017 IEEE 67th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 2017.
    198. Kwak, B.-H., et al., Correlations between interfacial reactions and bonding strengths of Cu/Sn/Cu pillar bump. Microelectronic Engineering, 2012. 89: p. 65-69.
    199. An, T. and F. Qin, Effects of the intermetallic compound microstructure on the tensile behavior of Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu/Cu solder joint under various strain rates. Microelectronics Reliability, 2014. 54(5): p. 932-938.
    200. Kumar, S., C.A. Handwerker, and M.A. Dayananda, Intrinsic and Interdiffusion in Cu-Sn System. Journal of Phase Equilibria and Diffusion, 2011. 32(4): p. 309-319.
    201. Chang, C.C., et al., The effects of solder volume and Cu concentration on the consumption rate of Cu pad during reflow soldering. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2010. 492(1): p. 99-104.
    202. Yang, S.C., et al., Strong Zn concentration effect on the soldering reactions between Sn-based solders and Cu. Journal of Materials Research, 2011. 21(10): p. 2436-2439.
    203. Wang, Y.W., et al., Abnormal Cu3Sn growth through grain boundary penetration in space-confined Ni-Sn-Cu diffusion couples. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2019. 799: p. 108-112.
    204. Straumal, B.B., P. Ziȩba, and W. Gust, Grain boundary phase transitions and phase diagrams. International Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2001. 3(8): p. 1113-1115.
    205. Son, J.Y., et al. Mechanical property and plated solder volume effect of Cu core ball. in 2018 IEEE 20th Electronics Packaging Technology Conference (EPTC). 2018.
    206. Lis, A. and C. Leinenbach, Effect of Process and Service Conditions on TLP-Bonded Components with (Ag,Ni–)Sn Interlayer Combinations. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2015. 44(11): p. 4576-4588.
    207. Yu, J.J., et al., Optimal Ag addition for the elimination of voids in Ni/SnAg/Ni micro joints for 3D IC applications. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2015. 629: p. 16-21.
    208. Li, Z.L., et al., Rapid formation of Ni3Sn4 joints for die attachment of SiC-based high temperature power devices using ultrasound-induced transient liquid phase bonding process. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 2017. 36: p. 420-426.
    209. Liu, Y., et al., Fracture reliability concern of (Au, Ni)Sn4 phase in 3D integrated circuit microbumps using Ni/Au surface finishing. Scripta Materialia, 2016. 119: p. 9-12.
    210. Ye, J.C., et al., Hardness, yield strength, and plastic flow in thin film metallic-glass. Journal of Applied Physics, 2012. 112(5): p. 053516.
    211. Tiryakioğlu, M., et al., Hardness–strength relationships in the aluminum alloy 7010. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2015. 631: p. 196-200.
    212. Chen, S., W. Zhou, and P. Wu, Effect of Zn Additions on the Mechanical Properties of Cu6Sn5-Based IMCs: Theoretical and Experimental Investigations. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2015. 44(10): p. 3920-3926.
    213. Baek, S., et al., Interfacial reactions and mechanical properties of transient liquid-phase bonding joints in Cu/Sn/Ni(P) and Ni/Sn/(OSP)Cu structures for power modules. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2021.
    214. Kadoguchi, T., et al., Highly thermostable joint of Cu/Ni plating/composite Sn–0.7Cu solder with added Cu balls for die attachment in power modules. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2018. 29(21): p. 18290-18301.
    215. Schulson, E.M., et al., The effect of grain size on the yield strength of Ni3Al. Acta Metallurgica, 1985. 33(9): p. 1587-1591.
    216. Vasudevan, V.K., et al., Effect of grain size and temperature on the yield stress of the intermetallic compound TiAl. Scripta Metallurgica, 1989. 23(4): p. 467-469.
    217. Lee, F.J.C., Physical Design for 3D Chiplets and System Integration, in Proceedings of the 2021 International Symposium on Physical Design. 2021, Association for Computing Machinery: Virtual Event, USA. p. 1.
    218. Liu, M. 1.1 Unleashing the Future of Innovation. in 2021 IEEE International Solid- State Circuits Conference (ISSCC). 2021.
    219. Shen, C., et al., Packaging Reliability Effect of ENIG and ENEPIG Surface Finishes in Board Level Thermal Test under Long-Term Aging and Cycling. Materials, 2017. 10(5): p. 451.
    220. Lee, C.J., et al., The investigation of interfacial and crystallographic observation in the Ni(V)/SAC/OSP Cu solder joints with high and low silver content during thermal cycling test. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2015. 26(12): p. 10055-10061.
    221. Kang, S.K., et al., Ag3Sn plate formation in the solidification of near-ternary eutectic Sn-Ag-Cu. JOM, 2003. 55(6): p. 61-65.
    222. Wang, M., et al., In-situ observation of fracture behavior of Sn–3.0Ag–0.5Cu lead-free solder during three-point bending tests in ESEM. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2012. 558: p. 649-655.
    223. Henderson, D.W., et al., Ag3Sn plate formation in the solidification of near ternary eutectic Sn–Ag–Cu alloys. Journal of Materials Research, 2011. 17(11): p. 2775-2778.
    224. Belyakov, S.A. and C.M. Gourlay, Heterogeneous nucleation of βSn on NiSn4, PdSn4 and PtSn4. Acta Materialia, 2014. 71: p. 56-68.
    225. Anderson, I.E., et al., Nucleation Control and Thermal Aging Resistanceof Near-Eutectic Sn-Ag-Cu-X Solder Jointsby Alloy Design. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2009. 38(12): p. 2770-2779.
    226. Parks, G., et al., The Nucleation of Sn in Undercooled Melts: The Effect of Metal Impurities. JOM, 2014. 66(11): p. 2311-2319.
    227. Ho, C.E., et al., Influence of Pd Concentration on the Interfacial Reaction and Mechanical Reliability of the Ni/Sn-Ag-Cu-xPd System. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2012. 41(1): p. 2-10.
    228. Kim, Y.M., J.-Y. Park, and Y.-H. Kim, Effect of Pd Thickness on the Interfacial Reaction and Shear Strength in Solder Joints Between Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu Solderand Electroless Nickel/Electroless Palladium/Immersion Gold (ENEPIG) Surface Finish. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2012. 41(4): p. 763-773.
    229. Ho, C.-E., S.-W. Lin, and Y.-C. Lin, Effects of Pd concentration on the interfacial reaction and mechanical reliability of the Sn–Pd/Ni system. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2011. 509(29): p. 7749-7757.
    230. Milad, G., Is “black pad” still an issue for ENIG? Circuit World, 2010. 36(1): p. 10-13.
    231. Park, J.-Y., et al., Influence of Au addition on the phase equilibria of near-eutectic Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu Pb-free solder alloy. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2003. 32(12): p. 1474-1482.
    232. Anderson, I.E., J. Walleser, and J.L. Harringa, Observations of nucleation catalysis effects during solidification of SnAgCuX solder joints. JOM, 2007. 59(7): p. 38-43.
    233. Hammad, A.E., Evolution of microstructure, thermal and creep properties of Ni-doped Sn–0.5Ag–0.7Cu low-Ag solder alloys for electronic applications. Materials & Design (1980-2015), 2013. 52: p. 663-670.
    234. Baek, Y.-H., et al., Effects of Ni3Sn4 and (Cu,Ni)6Sn5 intermetallic layers on cross-interaction between Pd and Ni in solder joints. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2013. 579: p. 75-81.
    235. Kang, S.K., et al. Critical Factors Affecting the Undercooling of Pb-free, Flip-Chip Solder Bumps and In-situ Observation of Solidification Process. in 2007 Proceedings 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference. 2007.
    236. Hollomon, J.H. and D. Turnbull, Nucleation. Progress in Metal Physics, 1953. 4: p. 333-388.
    237. Alam, M.O., Y.C. Chan, and K.N. Tu, Effect of 0.5 wt % Cu in Sn−3.5%Ag Solder on the Interfacial Reaction with Au/Ni Metallization. Chemistry of Materials, 2003. 15(23): p. 4340-4342.
    238. Cho, M.G., et al., Effects of under bump metallization and nickel alloying element on the undercooling behavior of Sn-based, Pb-free solders. Journal of Materials Research, 2011. 24(2): p. 534-543.
    239. Itami, T., et al., Structure of liquid Sn over a wide temperature range from neutron scattering experiments and first-principles molecular dynamics simulation: A comparison to liquid Pb. Physical Review B, 2003. 67(6): p. 064201.
    240. Calderín, L., et al., Structural, dynamic, and electronic properties of liquid tin: An ab initio molecular dynamics study. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 2008. 129(19): p. 194506.
    241. Kumar, V., A.K. Singh, and Y. Kawazoe, Smallest Magic Caged Clusters of Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb by Encapsulation of Transition Metal Atom. Nano Letters, 2004. 4(4): p. 677-681.
    242. Sun, Z.-M., et al., Pd2@Sn184-:  Fusion of Two Endohedral Stannaspherenes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2007. 129(31): p. 9560-9561.

    QR CODE