早期經驗能影響行為發展與神經系統發育，此現象稱為行為及神經可塑
性，是近代神經科學研究的基石。例如豐富飼養環境能促進動物的學習及相關
腦區的發育，而視覺經驗對視覺相關行為的發展及視覺系統發育影響尤其顯著。
烏賊為底棲頭足類動物，牠們有絕佳的視覺與發達的視覺系統，且多數行為與
視覺相關，是否視覺經驗能影響其行為及視覺系統發展目前所知甚少。烏賊在
孵化後無浮游期即行底棲生活與成體相似，因此其幼生能在實驗室的環境中培
育繁殖，為研究早期視覺經驗對行為與神經可塑性之影響的極佳動物。前人的
研究顯示豐富的飼養環境會促進烏賊偽裝花紋以及視覺學習的發展，然而視覺
經驗所扮演的角色以及對於視覺系統發育的影響仍尚未知。本研究使用虎斑烏
賊為研究對象來檢視從胚胎至孵化後12周的發育期間，貧乏以及豐富的視覺環
境對於烏賊的 (1) 偽裝花紋，(2) 背景偏好，(3) 視葉中麩胺酸受器表現的影響，並比較短期以及長期暴露於兩種貧乏的視覺環境(高對比度及低對比度)的影
差異。結果顯示豐富的視覺環境能增進虎斑烏賊對高對比度背景的偏好，且此
偏好的發展在視覺貧乏的環境中會延遲或是相反。另外長期飼養於高對比度及
低對比度環境中，也會造成虎斑烏賊的偽裝花紋發育及視葉中類肤胺酸受器表
現差異。且將動物短期暴露於高對比度背景中，即能增進對虎斑烏賊對高對比
度背景的偏好。綜合以上發現，本研究顯示胚胎以及孵化後的早期視覺環境經
驗能影響烏賊的行為發展及視覺系統發育，其中環境的豐富度及背景的對比度
為重要的影響因子，且推測類似印痕的學習機制參與其中。本研究因此提供了
頭足類動物在發育過程中行為及神經可塑性的重要證據。

Behavioral and neural plasticity is fundamental in modern neuroscience. It is well known that environmental enrichment can affect behavioral and neural development in many animals. Particularly, visual experience plays an important role in the activity-dependent modification of visually driven behaviors and visual systems. Cuttlefish are benthic cephalopods with a complex nervous system, and most of their behaviors are visually driven. Since their embryonic and postnatal developments are continuous without metamorphosis and hatchlings are relative easy to breed in the laboratory, this group of animals provides a unique opportunity to examine the effects of early visual experience on behavioral and neural plasticity. Previous studies have shown that enriched environment is crucial for proper behavioral development in cuttlefish. However, whether visual experience alone during embryonic and postnatal developments can modify specific behaviors and neural systems remains unclear. Using cuttlefish Sepia pharaonis, the present study investigated the effects of visually impoverished and/or enriched environments on (1) camouflage body pattern maturation, (2) background preference, and (3) expression of glutamate receptors in the optic lobe, from 7 days pre-hatching to 12 weeks post-hatching. Specifically, two distinct impoverished rearing backgrounds, checkerboard (high contrast) and uniform-gray (low contrast), were used to compare the effects of different visual contrasts on behavioral and neural plasticity in long- and/or short-term exposures. The results showed that environmental enrichment in embryonic and postnatal stages is critical for the development of high contrast background preference in S. pharaonis, whereas the impoverished environment can delay or reverse their background preference. Furthermore, cuttlefish long-term reared in high and low contrast environments showed different camouflage body patterns and NMDA-like receptor expressions, whereas cuttlefish short-term exposed to checkerboard can increase their tendency of high contrast background preference. Taken together, these findings indicate that both embryonic and postnatal visual experiences can influence behavioral and neural developments in cuttlefish. It also highlights the importance of the environmental enrichment and visual contrast in affecting early cuttlefish development. The present study thus provides a good correlation between the plasticity of visual system development and the plasticity of visual behavior maturation in cephalopods.

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