本研究將比較三種教學策略：動手做教學、資訊科技融入教學、結合動手做和資訊科技融入教學對學童在「水的三態變化」概念理解的影響。參與本研究的兩位自然老師接受三種教學策略訓練後，分別將其任教的三個班級隨機選派為動手做教學組、資訊科技融入教學組、結合動手做和資訊科技融入教學組，每組進行六節課的教學，共計240分鐘。參與的三年級學生人數共149人，每組兩班。研究工具為成就測驗、對自然課的態度量表與二階式診斷測驗，在三種教學策略介入前，對學生進行對自然課的態度量表前測與二階式診斷測驗前測，並於教學介入後，進行成就測驗後測、對自然課的態度量表後測和二階式診斷測驗後測。收集成就測驗後測分數與對自然課的態度量表測驗之前測、後測分數分別進行ANCOVA分析，以了解三種教學策略對學生水的三態變化學習成就與對自然課的態度的影響，並分析二階式診斷測驗題的答題狀況，以了解學生在水的三態變化概念學習的概念發展與變化。本研究結果發現：
一、 結合動手做和資訊科技融入教學與資訊科技融入教學對於提升學習成就的功效優於單純使用動手做教學。
二、 結合動手做和資訊科技融入教學對於促進學生正向的對自然課的態度成效優於單獨使用動手做教學。
三、 經過動手做教學、資訊科技融入教學與結合動手做和資訊科技融入教學後，三組皆呈現正向促進概念改變，但其中以結合動手做和資訊科技融入教學對於促進正確概念理解、減少另有概念類型的產生和澄清概念效果最佳。

This study aims to compare the effectiveness of three teaching methodologies: a hands-on activities, a computer-based activities, and a combined hands-on activities and computer-based activities on the three-grade of primary school students’ understanding of concept, alternative concepts and attitudes toward science in the domain of the changes in the three states of water. This study uses the design of quasi-experimental methods. This study that involved 149 participants assigned to three conditions and taught by two science teachers receives three instructional strategies training to teach six classes for each experimental group. The achievements test, two-tier diagnostic test on “the states of water” and ASATSCS test for students were used to collect data. Each experimental group received one of the three methods for 120 minutes a week during two weeks. In the analyses of data, ANCOVA procedures is used to determine differences in student understanding and attitudes toward their science class as a function of the three instructional strategies and the students’ answer ratio of two-tier diagnostic test is used to find out the status of conceptual understanding. The results suggest that when teaching students about the states of water, the combination of hands-on activities and computer-based activities enhanced students’ conceptual understanding and positive attitude more than the use of the hands-on activities alone.

王全世(2000)。資訊科技融入教學之意義與內涵。資訊與教育，82，23-30。
王曉璿(1999)。資訊科技融入各科教學探究。菁莪，10(4)，18-24。
自然與生活科技3下教師手冊(2011)。臺北市：康軒文教事業。
李文隆(2005)。利用DAPA探究國小五年級學童「蒸發、凝結」之概念學習。國立臺北師範學院自然科學教育學系碩士論文，未出版，台北市。
李素惠(2008)。實作探究對國小三年級學童蒸發凝結概念學習影響之研究。國立臺北教育大學自然科學教育研究所碩士論文，未出版，臺北市。
吳慧珍(2000)。探討學生透過網際網路進行合作學習對其科學過程技能的影響。國立臺灣師範大學地球科學所碩士論文，未出版，臺北市。
林顯輝(1995)。國小兒童蒸發與凝結概念之研究。國科會專題研究研究報告(編號：NSC83-01114-S-153-002)，未出版。
邱美虹(2000)。概念改變研究的省思與啟示。科學教育學刊，8(1)，1-34。
施皇羽(2002)。資訊融入自然與生活科技領域之我見。教師之友，43(5)，33-40。
施富有(2005)。提供鷹架對不同學習成就學生數位學習成效之探討－以高年級水的三態教學活動為例。國立新竹教育大學進修部課程與教學研究所碩士論文，未出版，新竹市。
涂志銘、林秀玉、張賴妙理、鄭湧涇（2008）。符合建構論理念的教學策略對植物的養分與能量概念學習的成效。科學教育學刊，16(1)，75-103。
徐式寬、林珮貞(2003)。反省與回顧台灣政府近年來在電腦融入教學上的投資與努力。教育科技與媒體，66，66-71。
張國恩(1999)。資訊融入各科教學之內涵與實施。資訊與教育，72，2-9。
張惠博(1999)。迷思概念的研究方法。「科學概念學習研究」研習會。臺北市：國立台灣師範大學。
張凱綸(2002）。國小學童對「水的三態變化」概念之研究。屏東師範學院數理教育研究所碩士論文，未出版，屏東縣。
張敬宜(1997)。高年級學童蒸發、凝結與沸騰概念研究。科學教育學刊，5(3)，321-346。
張靜嚳(1996）。建構教學：採用建構主義如何教學？。建構與教學，7，1-8。
張瓊穗，翁婉慈(2008)，國小教師資訊融入教學專業知能建構之研究，課程與教學季刊，11(1)，73-94。
陳麗珠(2004)。以歷程檔案評量探究國小五年級學童「奇妙的水」教學單元的概念學習。國立台北師範學院數理教育研究所碩士論文，未出版，臺北市。
教育部(2010)。國民中小學九年一貫課程綱要自然與生活科技學習領域。臺北市：教育部。
黃嘉明(2004)。國小學童「水的蒸發、凝結、沸騰」迷思概念及心智模式之探討以新屋鄉為例。國立新竹師範學院數理教育碩士班自然組碩士論文，未出版，新竹市。
楊龍立(1998)。建構教學研究。臺北市立師範學院學報，29，21-37。
廖信達(2002）。建構主義及其對幼教課程的啟示─從皮亞傑與維高斯基的理論談起。德育學報，18，93-109。
劉世雄(2000)。國小教師運用資訊科技融入教學策略之探討。資訊與教育雙月刊，78，60-66。
劉世雄(2001)。資訊科技應用教學的省思。教學科技與媒體，57，88-94。
蔡竺君(2000)。網路輔助自然科學習對國小學生學習成就及態度影響之個案研究。國立臺南師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文，未出版，臺南市。
盧秀琴、姚乃丹(2002)。資訊教育融入國小課程的應用與省思。國民教育，42(6)，19-24。
顏永進、何榮桂(2001a)。資訊融入健康與體育領域教學。教師天地，112，71-77。
顏永進、何榮桂(2001b)。資訊科技融入學習領域設計策略初探。載於何榮桂、戴維揚主編，資訊教育課程設計(頁197-215)。台北：師大學苑。
顏龍源（2000）。主題化的電腦融入課程概念。資訊與教育，80，32-40。
Abad, E. A. (2001). Boiling ice. Science Teacher, 68(1), 44–45.
Adey, P. S. (1982). Cross cultural Piagetian psychology and science education. Journal of Science and Mathematics Education in Southeast Asia, 5(2), 10-18.
Akpınar, Y. (2005). Computer supported applications in education. Ankara: Anı Publishing.
Azevedo, R., & Bernard, R. (1995). Assessing the effects of feedback in computer-assisted learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 26(1), 57–58.
Allessi, S., & Trollip, S. R. (1991). Computer based instruction: Methods and development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Andersson, B. (1990). Pupils' conceptions of matter and its transformations (age 12-16). Studies in Science Education, 18, 53-85.
Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational psychology: a cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Azevedo, R., & Bernard, R. (1995). Assessing the effects of feedback in computer-assisted learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 26(1), 57–58.
Baggott La Velle, B.L., McFarlane, A., & Brawn, R. (2003). Knowledge transformation through ICT in science education: a case study in teacher-driven curriculum development-case-study. British Journal of Educational Technology 34(2), 183–199.
Bang, M. (2003). ICT Educational analysis for the estranged people: Focused on OECD countries. RR 2003–19. Korea Education & Research Information Service. Retrieved September 4, 2006, from http://www.keris.or.kr/data/research.jsp?layerNo=dataleft1.
Bar V., (1989). Children’s views about the water cycle, Science Education, 73, 481–500.
Bar, V., & Galili, I. (1994). Stages of children's views about evaporation. International Journal of Science Education, 16(2), 157-174.
Bar, V., & Travis, A. S. (1991). Children’s views concerning phase changes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28, 363–382.
Barnett M, Morran J (2002) Addressing children’s alternative frameworks of the moon’s phases and eclipses. International Journal of Science Education, 24, 859–879.
Bayraktar,. Ş. (2000). A meta-analysis on the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in science education, Unpublished Master Dissertation, Ohio University, US.
Bayraktar, Ş. (2002). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in science education. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 34, 173–188.
Bernauer, J. A. (1995). Integrating technology into the curriculum. American Education Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Beveridge, M.(1985). The development of young children's understanding of the process of evaporation. BRITISH JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, 55(FEB), 84-90.
Bristow, B. R. (2000). The effects of hands-on instruction on sixth grade students’ understanding of electricity and magnetism. Dissertation Abstracts International, 39(11), 30A. (University Microfilms No. AAT1400301).
Bruner, J. S. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bryant, K., Campbell, J., & Kerr, D. (2003). Impact of web based flexible learning on academic performance in information systems. Journal of Information Systems Education, 41-50.
Burke, K. A., Greenbowe, T. J., & Windschitl, M. A. (1998). Developing and using conceptual computer animations for chemistry instruction. Journal of Chemical Education, 75(12), 1658-1661.
Butts, D. (1963). The degree to which children conceptualize from science experience. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1(1), 135-143.
Bybee, R. W., & van Scotter, P. (2006). Reinventing the science curriculum. Educational Leadership, 64(4), 43-47.
Canpolat, N. (2006). Turkish Undergraduates' Misconceptions of Evaporation, Evaporation Rate, and Vapour Pressure. International Journal of Science Education, 28(15), 1757-1770.
Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Carey, S. (2000). Science education as conceptual change. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 13–19.
Çepni, S., Taş, E., & Köse, S. (2006). The effects of computer-assisted material on students’ cognitive levels, misconceptions and attitudes towards science. Computers & Education, 46(2), 192-205.
Chang, C.-Y. (2001). Comparing the impacts of a problem-based computer-assisted instruction and the direct-interactive teaching method on student science achievement. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 10(2), 2001.
Chandrasegaran AL, Treagust D.F. Mocerino, M. (2007). The development of a two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument for evaluating secondary school students’ ability to describe and explain chemical reactions using multiple levels of representation. Educaton Research Practice, 8(3), 293-307.
Chang, J. (1999). Teachers college students’ conceptions about evaporation, condensation, and boiling. Science Education, 83(5), 511–526.
Chi, M.T.H. (1992).Conceptual change within and across ontological categories: Implications for learning and discovery in sciences. In R. Giere (Ed.), Cognitive models of science: Minnesota students in the philosophy of science (pp.129-186). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Chi, M.T.H. (2005). Commonsense conceptions of emergent processes: Why some misconceptions are robust. Journal of the Learning Sciences,14, 161–199.
Chiu, M.H. (2007). A National Survey of Students’ Conceptions of Chemistry in Taiwan. International Journal of Science Education, 29(4), 421-452.
Coştu, B. & Ayas, A. (2005). Evaporation in different liquids: secondary students’ conceptions. Research of Science Technology Education, 23(1), 75-97.
Coştu, B., Ayas, A., & Niaz, M. (2010). Promoting conceptual change in first year students’ understanding of evaporation. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 11(1), 5.
Coştu, B., Ayas, A., Niaz, M., Ünal, S., & Çalik, M. (2007). Facilitating Conceptual Change in Students’ Understanding of Boiling Concept. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16(6), 524-536.
Couture, M. (2004). Realism in the design process and credibility of a simulation-based virtual laboratory. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning , 20, 40–49.
Coye, R. W., & Stonebraker, P. W. (1994). The effectiveness of personal computers in operations management education. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 14(12), 35–46.
Crook, C. (1994). Computers and the collaborative experience of learning. London: Routledge.
de Jong, T., & van Joolingen, W. (1998). Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains. Review of Educational Research, 68, 179–201.
Dewey, J. (1980). The school and society. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press.
Dickinson, D.H. (1976). Community college student’s achievement and attitude change in lecture only, lecture-laboratory approach to general education biological science courses (Doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, 1975). Dissertation Abstracts International, 36, 5968A.
Disa, L.B. (1999). Integrating technology: some things you should know. Learning & Leading with Technology, 27(3),10-13.
Driver, R. (1989). Changing conceptions. In P. Adey (Ed.), Adolescent development and school science (pp. 79–99). London: Falmer.
Driver, R., & Oldham, V. (1986). A constructivist approach to curriculum development in science. Studies in Science Education, 13, 105-122.
Doymus, K., Simsek, U., & Karacop, A. (2009). The effects of computer animations and cooperative learning methods in micro macro and symbolic level learning of states of matter. Egitim Arastirmalari-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research(36), 109-128.
Duit, R. (2006). Bibliography---STCSE: Students’ and teachers’ conceptions and science education. Retrieved July 25, 2006, from http://www.ipn.uni-kewl.de/akttuell/stcse/stcse.html.
Dykstar, D. I., Boyle, C. F., & Monarch, I. A. (1991). Modeling understanding to study conceptual change in learning physics. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, Bremen, Germany.
Ebenezer, J. V. (2001). A hypermedia environment to explore and negotiate students’ conceptions: Animations of the solution process of table salt. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 10(1), 73–91.
Fletcher-Finn, C., & Gravatt, B. (1995). The efficacy of computer assisted instruction (CAI): A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12(3), 219–241.
Fraser, B.J. (1980). Science teacher characteristics and student attitudinal outcomes. School Science and Mathematics, 80, 300–308.
Freedman, M. P. (1997). Relationship among laboratory instruction attitude toward science and achievemnt in scient knowledge. Jouranal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(4), 343-357.
Gardner, P. L. (1975).Attitude to science: A review. Studies in Science Education, 2, 1-41.
Garnett, P. Garnett, P., & Hackling, M. (1995). Students’ alternative conceptions in chemistry: A review of research and implications for teaching and learning. Studies in Science Education, 25, 69–95.
Gentner, D., Brem, S., Ferguson, R. W., Markman, A. B., Levidow, B.B., Wolff, P., & Forbus, K.D.(1997). Analogical reasoning and conceptual change: A case study of Johannes Kepler. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6,13-40.
Gilbert, J. K., & Watts, D. M. (1983). Concepts, misconceptions and alternative conceptions: Changing perspectives in science education. Studies in Science Education, 10, 61.
Glynn, S. M. (1991). Explaining science concepts: A teaching-with-analogies (TWA) model. In S. M. Glynn, R. H. Yeany, & B. K. Britton (Eds.), The psychology of learning science (pp.219-240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Gopal, H., Kleinsmidt, J., Case, J., & Musonge, P. (2004). An investigation of tertiary students' understanding of evaporation, condensation and vapour pressure. International Journal of Science Education, 26(13), 1597-1620.
Gorsky, P. & Finegold, M. (1992). Using computer simulations to restructure students’ conception of force. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 11, 163 –178.
Grayson, D. J., Anderson, T. R., & Crossley, L. G. (2001). A four-level framework for identifying and classifying student conceptual and reasoning difficulties. International Journal of Science Education, 23, 611–622.
Gunsch, L. (1972). A comparison of student’s achievement and attitude changes resulting from a laboratory and non-laboratory approach to general education physical science courses (Doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, 1972). Dissertation Abstracts International, 33, 6290.
Gunstone, R., & White, R. (2000). Goals, methods and achievements of research in science education. In R. Miller, J. Leach, & J. Osborne (Eds.), Improving science education: The contribution of research (pp. 293–307). Buckingham: Open University Press.
Hannafin, M., Hannafin, K., Hooper, S., Rieber, L., & Kini, A. (1996). Research on and research with emerging technologies. Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology, 378, 402.
Hart, C., Mulhall, P., Berry, A., Loughran, J., & Gunstone, R. (2000). What is the purpose of this experiment? Or can students learn something from doing experiment? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(7), 665-675.
Hashweh, M. (1986). Toward and explanation of conceptual change. European Journal of Science Education, 8(3),229-249.
Hatzinikita, V., & Koulaidis, V. (1997). Pupils’ ideas on conservation during changes in the state of water. Research in Science and Technological Education, 15(1),53–71.
Hennessy, S., Deaney, R. & Ruthven, K. (2006). Situated expertise in integrating use of multimedia simulation into secondary science teaching. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 701–732.
Herman, S. J.(1995).Connection math performance to the representation of mathematical ideas:A study of 6th grader students in China, Japan, Taiwan and The United States of America sixth grader. University of Calliformia.
Hoadley, C. M. & Linn, M. C. (2000). Teaching science through online peer discussion: speakeasy in the knowledge integration environment. International Journal of Science Education, 22(8), 839-857.
Hodson, D. (1990). A critical look at practical work in school science. School Science Review, 71(256), 33-43.
Hofstein, A., Mooz, N., & Rishpon, M. (1990). Attitudes toward school science: A comparison of participants and non-participants in extracurricular science activities. School Science and Mathematics, 90(1), 13-22.
Hofstein A. & Lunetta V. (1982). The role of laboratory in science teaching: neglected aspects of research. Review of Educational Research, 52, 201–217.
Hofstein A. & Lunetta V. (2004). The laboratory in science education: foundations for the twenty-first century. Science Education, 88, 24–54.
Hsu Y. & Thomas R.A. (2002). The impacts of a web-aided instructional simulation on science learning. International Journal of Science Education, 24, 955–979.
International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE] (2003). Retrieved January 02, 2011, from http://www.iste.org
İşman, A., Baytekin, Ç., Balkan, F., Horzum, M. B., & M. Kıyıcı, M. (2002). Science education and constructivism. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 1 (1), Article 7.
Jaakkola, T., & Nurmi, S. (2008). Fostering elementary school students’ understanding of simple electricity by combining simulation and laboratory activities. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(4), 271-283.
Jaakkola, T., Nurmi, S., & Veermans, K. (2011). A comparison of students' conceptual understanding of electric circuits in simulation only and simulation-laboratory contexts. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(1), 71-93.
Jeevaratnam, E. G., Msiza, A. K., Case, J. M., & Fraser, D. M. (2000). Understanding of energy by first year students. Proceedings of th 3rd Working Confernce on Engineering Education for the 21st Century, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, 117-122.
Jere Brophy (1999). The changing nature and purpose of assessment in the social studies classroom. Social Education., Arlington, 63(6), p334-337.
Jonassen, D.H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development, 39, 5–14.
Johnson, P. (1998a). Children’s understanding of changes of state involving the gas state, part 1: Boiling water and the particle theory. International Journal of Science Education, 20(5), 567–583.
Johnson, P. (1998b). Children’s understanding of changes of state involving the gas state, part 2: Evaporation and condensation below boiling point. International Journal of Science Education, 20(6), 695–709.
Johnson, P. (2005). The development of children’s concept of a substances: A longitudinal study of interaction between curriculum and learning. Research in Science Education, 35(1), 41–61.
Johnson, R. T., Ryan, F. L., & Schroeder, H. (1974). Inquiry and the development of positive attitudes.Science Education, 58, 51-56.
Jonassen, D. H. (2003). Using cognitive tools to represent problems. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(3), 362-379.
Jonassen, D. H., & Reeves, T. C. (1996). Learning with technology: Using computers as cognitive tools. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 693-719). New York: Macmillan.
Jones, B. L., Lynch, P. P., & Reesink, C. (1989). Children's understanding of the notions of solid and liquid in relation to some common substances. International Journal of Science Education, 11(4), 417-427.
Keil, F. (1984). Semantic and conceptual development: An ontological perspective. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Keil, F. (1999). The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Kelly, R. M., & Jones, L. L. (2007). Exploring how different features of animations of sodium chloride dissolution affect students’ explanations. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16, 413–429.
Khalili, A., & Shashaani, L. (1994). The effectiveness of computer applications: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 27(1), 48–61.
Kim, B., & Reeves, T. C. (2007). Reframing research on learning with technology: In search of the meaning of cognitive tools. Instructional Science, 35(3), 207-256.
Kimmel, H., & Deek, F. P. (1995). Instructional technology: A tool or a panacea. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 4(4), 327–382.
Kuhn, D., Amsel, E., & O’Loughlin (1988). The Development of scientific thinking skills, London: Academic Press.
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kulik, C.-L., & Kulik, J. (1991). Effectiveness of computer-based instruction: an updated analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 7, 75–94.
Kulik, J., Kulik, C.-L., & Bangert-Drowns, R. L. (1985). Effectiveness of computer-based education in elementary pupils. Computers in Human Behavior, 1, 59–74.
Kulik, J., Kulik, C.-L., & Cohen, P. (1980). Effectiveness of computer-based college teaching: a meta-analysis of findings. Review of Educational Research, 50, 525–544.
Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, O., Eichinger, D. Anderson, C., Berkheimer, G., & Blakeslee, T. (1993). Changing middle school students’ conceptions of matter and molecules. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(3), 249-270.
Liao, Y. C. (2007). Effects of computer-assisted instruction on students’ achievements in Taiwan: A meta-analysis. Computer and Education, 48, 216-233.
Lumpe, A. T., & Oliver, J. S. (1991). Dimensions of hands-on science. The American Biology Teacher, 53(6), 345-348.
MacKinnon, A. (1989). Conceptualizing a hall of mirrors in science teaching paracticum. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, San Francisco, CA.
Mallinson, G.G. (1976). A summary of research in science education—1975. Science Education. New York: Wiley (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 148 602).
Major, J. (2006) . Will it float?. Science Scope, 30(2), 22-24.
Marek, E., & Methven, S. (1991). Effects of the learning cycle upon student and classroom teacher performance. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(1), 41-53.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 484-490.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1992). The instructive animation: Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 444-452.
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 715-726.
Mayer, R. E., & R. B. Anderson. (1992). The instructive animation: helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 444-452.
McDermott, L.C. (1990). Research and computer-based instruction: Opportunity for interaction. American Journal of Physics, 58, 452–462.
Merenluoto, K. & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Number concept and conceptual change: towards a systemic model of the processes of change. Learning and Instruction, 14, 519–534.
Morgil, I., Yavuz, S., Oskay, O. O., & Arda, S. (2007). Traditional and computer-assisted learning in teaching acids and bases. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 6(1), 52-63.
Morrell, D. (1992). The effects of computer-assisted instruction on student achievement in high school biology. School Science and Mathematics, 92, 177–181.
Nakhleh, M. B. (1992). Why some students don’t learn chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 69, 191-196.
National Research Council (1996). National science education standards. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Novak, J. (1988). Learning science and the science of learning. Studies in Science Education, 15, 77-101.
Novak, J. D. (1991). Clarify with concept maps. Science Teacher, 58(7), 41-49.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984).Learning how to learn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Nussbaum, J. & Novick, S. (1982). Alternative frameworks, conceptual conflict and accommodation: Towards a principled teaching strategy. Instructional Science, 11, 183-200.
Ornstein, A. (2006). The frequency of hands-on experimentation and student attitudes toward science: A statistically significant relation (2005-51-Ornstein). Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15(3), 285-297.
Osborne R. (1983). Towards modifying children’s ideas about electric current. Research in Science and Technology Education, 1, 73–82.
Osborne, R. E., & Freyburg, P. F. (1985). Learning in Science: The Implication of Children Science. Auckland: Heiremann.
Osborne, R. J., & Cosgrove, M. M. (1983). Children’s conceptions of the changes of state of water. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(9), 825–838.
Osborne, R., & Wittrock, M. (1983). Learning sciences: A generative process. Science Education, 67(4), 489-508.
Özmen, H. (2008). The influence of computer-assisted instruction on students’ conceptual understanding of chemical bonding and attitude toward chemistry: A case for Turkey. Computers & Education, 51(1), 423–438.
Özmen, H., Demirciog˘lu, G., & Coll, R. K. (in press). Using concept maps and laboratory activities to enhance Turkish grade 10 high school students’ understanding of acid-base chemistry. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education. http://www.springerlink.com/content/x65h373125r306w0/fulltext.pdf.
Özmen, H., Demircioğlu, H., & Demircioğlu, G. (2009). The effects of conceptual change texts accompanied with animations on overcoming 11th grade students' alternative conceptions of chemical bonding. Computers & Education, 52(3), 681-695.
Paik, S. H, Kim, H.N., Cho, B. K., & Park. J. W. (2004). K-8th grade Korean students’ ‘conceptions of changes of state’ and ‘conditions for changes of state’. International Journal of Science Education, 26(2), 207–224.
Paivio, A. (1991). Images in mind: The evolution of a theory. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Papageorgiou, G., & Johnson, J. (2005). Do particle ideas help or hinder pupils’ understanding of phenomena? International Journal of Science Education, 27(11), 1299–1317.
Pfundt, H. & Duit, R. (2000). Bibliography: students alternative frameworks and science. IPN, Kiel, Germany.
Pierri, E., Karatrantou, A., & Panagiotakopoulos, C. (2008). Exploring the phenomenon of 'change of phase' of pure substances using the Microcomputer-Based-Laboratory (MBL) system. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 9(3), 234.
Pınarbaşı, T., Canpolat, N., Bayrakçeken, S., & Geban Ö., (2006). An investigation of effectiveness of conceptual change text-oriented instruction on students’ understanding of solution concepts, Research Science Education, 36, 313-335.
Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P.W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, 211-227.
Poudel, D. D., Vincent, L. M., Anzalone, C., Huner, J., Wollard, D., Clement T., DeRamus, A., & Blakewood, G. (2005). Hands-on activities and challenge tests in agricultural and environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 36(4), 10-14.
Prain, V., Tytler, R., & Peterson, S. (2009). Multiple representation in learning about evaporation. International Journal of Science Education, 31(6), 787-808.
Rahayu, S., & Kita, M. (2009). An Analysis of Indonesian and Japanese Students’ Understandings of Macroscopic and Submicroscopic Levels of Representing Matter and Its Changes. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 8(4), 667-688.
Randler, C., & Hulde, M. (2007). Hands-on versus teacher-centered experiments in soil ecology. Research in Science &Technological Education, 25(3), 329-338.
Roth, W. M. (1994). Experimenting in a constructivist high school physics laboratory. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 197–223.
Ronen, M. & Eliahu, M. (2000). Simulation – a bridge between theory and reality: the case of electric circuits. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16, 14–26.
Rumelhart, D. E. & Norman, D. A. (1981). Accretion, tuning and restructuring: Three modes of learning. In R. Klatsky & J. W. Cotton (Eds.), Semantic factors in cognition, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Russell, J. W., Kozma, R. B., Jones, T., Wykoff, J., Marx, N., & Davis, J. (1997). Use of simultaneous-synchronized macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations to enhance the teaching and learning of chemical concepts. Journal of Chemical Education, 74, 330–334.
Russell, T., Harlen, W., & Watt, D. (1989). Children's ideas about evaporation. International Journal of Science Education, 11(5), 566-576.
Sadi, Ö., & Cakiroglu, J. (2011). Effects of hands-on activity enriched instruction on students' achievement and attitudes towards science. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 10(2), 87-97.
Sanger, M. J., & Greenbowe, T. J. (1997). Students’ misconceptions in electrochemistry: Current flow in electrolyte solutions and the salt bridge. Journal of Chemical Education, 74, 819–823.
Sanger, M. J., & Greenbowe, T. J. (2000). Addressing student misconceptions concerning electron flow in electrolyte solutions with instruction including computer animations and conceptual change. International Journal of Science Education, 22, 521–537.
Scott, P. H., Asoko, H. M,, & Driver, R. H. (1991). Teaching for conceptual change: A review of strategies. In R. Duit, F.Goldberg, & H. Niederer (Eds.), Research in physics learning: Theoretical issues and empirical studies. Proceedings of an International Workshop.
Senteni, A. (2004). Mathematics and computer-aided learning. Academic Exchange Quarterl, 22.
She, H.C. (2002). Concepts of higher hierarchical level required more dual situational learning events for conceptual change: A study of students’ conceptual changes on air pressure and buoyancy. International Journal of Science Education, 24(9), 981–996.
Shulman, L. D. & Tamir, P. (1973). Research on teaching in the natural sciences. In R. M. W. Travers(Ed.), Second handbook of research on teaching. Chicago:Rand McNally.
Smith, J., diSessa, A., & Roschelle, J. (1993). Misconceptions reconceived: A constructivist analysis of knowledge in transition. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3, 115–163.
Stavy, R. (1990). Children's conception of changes in the state of matter from liquid or solid to gas. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(3), 247-266.
Steinberg , R.N. (2000). Computers in teaching science: to simulate or not to simulate? American Journal of Physics, 68, 37–41.
Suchman, J. (1960). Inquiry training: An approach to problem solving. In Science Materials Center (Eds.), Laboratories in the classroom (pp. 73-76). New York: Science Materials Center.
Tao, P.-K., & Gunstone, R. F. (1999). The process of conceptual change in force and motion during computer-supported physics instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(7), 859-882.
Taber, K.S. (2001). Building the structural concepts of chemistry: some considerations from educational research. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice in Europe, 2(2), 123-158.
Taraban, R., Box, C., Myers, R., Pollard, R., & Bowen, C.W. (2007). Effects of active-learning experiences an achievement, attitudes, and behaviors in high school biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(7), 960-979.
Tasker, R., & Dalton, R. (2006). Research into practice. Visualization of the molecular world using animations. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 7(2), 141–159.
Thomas, P. L. & Schwenz, R. W. (1998). College physical chemistry students’ conceptions of equilibrium and fundamental thermodynamics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(10), 1151-1160.
Tjaden, B. J., & Martin, C. D. (1995). Learning effects of computer-assisted instruction on collage students. Computer Education, 24(4), 221–277.
Toulmin, S. (1972). Human understanding, Vol. 1: The collective use and evolution of concepts. Princeton: University of Princeton Press.
Treagust, D. (1986). Evaluating students’ misconception by means of diagnostic multiple choice items. Research in Science Education, 16, 199-207.
Trey, L., & Khan, S. (2008). How science students can learn about unobservable phenomena using computer-based analogies. Computers & Education, 51(2), 519–529.
Trowbridge, J. H., & Bybee, R. W. (1990). Applying standards-based constructivism: A two-step guide for motivating students. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tsai, C.-C. (2000). Enhancing science instruction: the use of ‘conflict maps’. International Journal of Science Education, 22(3), 285-302.
Tyson, L. M., Venville, G. J., Harrison, A. G., & Treagust, D. F. (1997). A multidimensional framework for interpreting conceptual change events in the classroom. Science Education, 81, 387–404.
Tytler, R. (2000). A comparison of year 1 and year 6 students' conceptions of evaporation and condensation Dimensions of conceptual progression. International Journal of Science Education, 22(5), 447-467.
Tytler, R., Prain, V., & Peterson, S. (2007). Representational Issues in Students Learning About Evaporation. Research in Science Education, 37(3), 313-331.
Varelas, M., Pappas, C. C., & Rife, A. (2006). Exploring the role of intertextuality in concept construction: Urban second graders make sense of evaporation, boiling and condensation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(7), 637–666.
Vermaat, J. H., Kramers-Pals, H., & Schank, P. (2003). The use of animations in chemical education. In Paper presented at the international convention of the association for educational communications and technology, Anaheim, CA.
von Glasersfeld, E. (1998). Cognition, Construction of Knowledge, And Teaching. In Metthews, M. R. (ed), Constructivism in Science Education, 11-30. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Printed in the Netherland.
Vosniadou, S.(1994). Capturing and modeling the process of conceptual change[special issue]. Learning and instruction, 4, 45-69.
Vosniadou, S., Ioannides, C., Dimitrakopoulou, A., & Papademetriou, E. (2001). Designing learning environments to promote conceptual change in science. Learning and Instruction, 15, 317–419.
Wainwright, C. L. (1989). The effectiveness of a computer-assisted instruction package in high school chemistry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 26, 275–290.
Wang, T. L., & Berlin, D. (2010). Construction and Validation of an Instrument to Measure Taiwanese Elementary Students’ Attitudes toward Their Science Class. International Journal of Science Education, 32(18), 2413-2428.
Weaver, C. G. (1998). Strategies in K-12 science instruction to promote conceptual change. Report to the University of Colorado at Denver.
Westbrook, S. L. & Marek, E. A. (1992). A cross-age study of student understanding of the concept of homeostasis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(1), 51 -61.
White, B., & Horwitz, P. (1988). Computer microworlds and conceptual change: A new approach to science education. In P. Ramsden (ed.), Improving learning: New perspectives(pp. 69–80). London: Kogan Page.
Windschitl, M., & Andre, T. (1998). Using computer simulations to enhance conceptual change: The roles of constructivist instruction and student epistemological beliefs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(2), 145–160.
Winn, W., Stahr, F., Sarason, C., Fruland, R., Oppenheimer, P., & Lee, Y. (2006). Learning oceanography from a computer simulation compared with direct experience at sea. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 25–42.
Yin, Y., Tomita, M. K., & Shavelson, R. J. (2008). Diagnosing and dealing with student misconceptions: Floating and sinking. Science Scope, 31(8), 34-39.
Zacharia Z.C. (2007). Comparing and combining real and virtual experimentation: an effort to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of electric circuits. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23, 120–132.
Zacharia Z.C. & Anderson O.R. (2003). The effects of an interactive computer-based simulation prior to performing a laboratory inquiry-based experiment on students’ conceptual understanding of physics. American Journal of Physics, 71, 618–629.
Zacharia, Z.C., Olympiou, G., & Papaevripidou, M. (2008). Effects of experimenting with physical and virtual manipulatives on students’ conceptual understanding in heat and temperature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(9), 1021–1035.
Zietsman, A.I., & Hewson, P.W. (1986). Effect of instruction using microcomputer simulations and conceptual change strategies on science learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23, 27–39.