本研究目的是以多層次觀點及階層線性模式分析方法，來探討個人層次中威權領導與仁慈領導對自我效能的影響，以及跨層次中德行領導對自我效能的影響。本研究以2008年大專男女子第二級籃球隊，共39隊及476人為研究對象。測量工具為家長式領導量表與自我效能量表。資料收集後，採描述性統計（descriptive analyses）、皮爾森積差相關（Pearson correlation）以及階層線性模式（Hierarchical Linear Modeling）等統計方法分析。研究結果發現：（1）在個體層次部分，威權領導對自我效能具有正向預測力，而仁慈領導不具有解釋力；（2）在群體層次部分，德行領導僅在個人層次部分對自我效能具有正向預測力，而不具有跨層次的解釋力。最後針對本研究的主要研究發現進行討論，並說明本研究之未來研究方向與實務應用的意涵。

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of paternalistic leadership behavior on athlete`s self-efficient for college basketball players in multilevel perspective and hierarchical linear modeling method. The subjects of this study included 39 basketball teams and 476 college Division II man and women basketball players who participated in 2008 College Basketball League. A set of instruments was used to collect data and factor analysis, the paternalistic leadership questionnaire and self-efficacy questionnaire were used to collect data in this study. Descript statistics, Pearson correlation, and Hierarchical Linear Modeling analysis were used to analysis data. Hear are the findings：（1）In the individual-level, the authoritarian leadership had positively effect on athlete`s self-efficient, but the benevolent leadership was not.（2）In the cross level, the moral leadership had only positively effect on athlete`s self-efficient in individual level, but it did not have any effect in cross level. Finally, it is also discussed in this study for the main findings and limitations as well as future study directions and management implications.

任金剛、鄭伯壎、周麗芳、樊景立（2003）。高階主管之家長式領導與組織效能：一項個人與組織層次分析。教育部華人本土心理學研究追求卓越計畫研究報告。台北：國立台灣大學。
李淑芳、高永謀、鐘孟文（2008）。鈴木一朗ICHIRO。台北：布克文化。
吳清山、林天祐 (2006)。品格教育。教育資料與研究，64，149。
吳慧卿（2002）。選手知覺教練領導行為、團隊衝突、團隊凝聚力及滿意度之實證研究。未出版博士論文，國立台灣師範大學，台北。
林夙豐、蘇秦玉（2008）。教練領導風格對高中排球選手團隊承諾及滿意度影響之研究。運動與遊憩研究，2（3），37-49。
周俊三（2003）。台灣與中國大陸籃球選手家長式領導動機氣候團隊凝聚力與團隊滿意關係之研究。未出版碩士論文，國立體育學院，桃園。
邱皓政（2005）。量化研究法（二）：統計原理與分析技術。台北：雙葉書廊。
金耀基（1991）。中國現代化與知識份子。台北：時報文化。
范文曦（2002）。台北市國民小學運動代表隊教練之參與動機與領導行為研究。未出版碩士論文，台北市立師範學院，台北。
高三福（1993）。從自我效能的觀點談自信心。中華體育季刊，7（1），107-110。
凌文輇（1991）。中國人的領導與行為。台北：遠流出版公司。
徐瑋伶、黃敏萍、鄭伯壎、樊景立（2004）。華人企業中的德行領導。華人本土組織行為研究的方向與策略：追求卓越計畫的城果與展望學術研討會論文集。台北：國立台灣大學心理系。
徐慶帆（2007）。從華人家長式領導談運動教練領導行為。中華體育季刊，21（1），51-58。
莊耀嘉（1996）。中國人角色關係的認知結構。國科會研究報告。
陳玉娟 （1994）。台灣地區游泳教練領導行為與選手成績表現及滿意度關係之研究。未出版碩士論文，國立台灣師範大學，台北。
黃光國（1995）。知識與行動：中國文化傳統社會心理學詮釋。台北：心理出版社。
陳怡儒（2004）。家長式領導、團隊文化與籃球選手運動動機及身心倦怠之相關研究。未出版碩士論文，國立體育學院，桃園。
許淑慧（1997）。我國柔道教練領導行為之研究。未出版碩士論文，私立文化大學，台北。
陳鈺芳（2004）。教練領導、領導信任及運動員效能：多元領導模式驗證。未出版碩士論文，國立台灣師範大學，台北。
陳龍弘、蔡英美（2005）。華人家長式領導、情緒感受與運動員競技倦怠。大專體育學刊，7（2），101-110。
彭台光、林鉦棽（2008）。組織現象和層次議題：非獨立性資料的概念和實徵。組織與管理，1，95-121。
費孝通（1948）。鄉土中國與鄉土重建。上海：觀察社。
曾建興、林彥伯（2008）。家長式領導行為對大學棒球運動員運動倦怠之影響。北體學報，16，26-37。
湯慧娟、宋ㄧ夫（2004）。教練家長式領導、團隊文化價值觀對團隊承諾之影響研究。體育學報，36，119-130。
葉志仙（2003）。職業與業餘棒球選手知覺教練領導行為對滿意度之研究。體育學報，35，83-94 。
楊國樞（1992）。中國人的社會取向：社會互動的觀點。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞（1993）。傳統價值觀與現代價值觀能否同時並存。載於楊國樞、余安邦（主編）：中國人的價值觀--社會科學觀點。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞（1995）。家族化歷程、泛家族主義、及組織管理。見鄭伯壎（主編）台灣與大陸的企業文化及人力資源管理研討會論文集。台北：信義文化基金會。
樊景立、鄭伯壎（2000）。華人組織的家長式領導：一項文化觀點的分析。本土心理學研究，13，127-180。
鄭志富（1995）。運動教練領導行為模式分析。台灣師大體育研究，1，75-90。
鄭伯壎（1995a）。不同家長權威價值與領導作風的關係：台灣民營企業的實徵研究》。行政院國科會專題研究報告（計畫編號：NSC83-0301-H002-056）。
鄭伯壎（1995b）。差序格局與華人組織行為。本土心理學研究，3，142-219。
鄭伯壎（1995c）。家長權威與領導行為的關係：一個台灣民營企業主持人的個案研究。中央研究院民族學研究所期刊，79，119-173。
鄭伯壎（2005）。華人領導：理論與實際。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
鄭伯壎、莊仲仁（1981）。基層軍事幹部有效領導行為之因素分析：領導績效、領導角色與領導行為之關係。中華心理學刊，4，2-41。
鄭伯壎、周麗芳（2004）。家長式領導三元模式：構念修正與再驗證。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究報告（計畫編號：NSC93-2752-H-002-003-PAE）。
鄭伯壎、周麗芳、樊景立（2000）。家長式領導量表：三元模式的建構與測量。本土心理學研究期刊，14，3-64。
鄭伯壎、樊景立、周麗芳（2006）。家長式領導：模式與證據。台北：華泰文化事業股份有限公司。
鄭伯壎、黃敏萍、周麗芳（2002）。家長式領導及其效能:華人企業團隊的證據。香港華人心理學報，8（4），583-617。
鄭伯壎、林姿葶、周麗芳、任金剛（2008）。家長式領導與部屬效能：多層次分
析觀點。華人文化的心理學想像學術研討會，台北，國立臺灣大學。
鄭伯壎、謝佩鴛、周麗芳（2002）。校長領導作風、上下關係品質及教師角色外行為：轉型式與家長式領導的效果。本土心理學研究，17，105-161。
蔡英美（2005）。家長式領導三元模式的主要效果與互涉作用對運動團隊滿意度的預測。輔仁大學體育學刊，4，99-108。
鄭嘉勝（2004）。教練領導風格與運動員參與動機之關係研究：自主性關係感及勝任感之中介效果。未出版碩士論文，國立台北教育大學，台北。

英文文獻
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.
Bandura, A.(1982). The psychology of chance encounters and life paths. American Psychologist, 37, 747-755.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York：W. H. Freeman and Company.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: an agentive perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Bandura, A., Adams, N. E., & Beyer, J. (1977). Cognitive processes mediating behavioral change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 125-139.
Bernacucci A, & Lengacher, C. A. (1998). Self-efficacy: an essential component of advanced practice nursing. Nursing connections, 11(1), 55-67.
Burns, J. Z. & Otte, F. L. (1999). Implications of leader-member exchange theory and research for human resource development research. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10, 225-247.
Callow, N. & Waters, A. (2005). The effect of kinesthetic imagery on the sport confidence of flat-race horse jockeys. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 443-459.
Cheng, B. S., Chou, L. F., Wu, T. Y., Huang, M. P., & Farh, J. L. (2004). Paternalistic leadership and subordinate reverence: Establishing a leadership model in Chinese organization. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 7, 89-117.
Cohen, J.（1988）. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences（2nd.）. Hillsdale, NJ: Eribaum.
Dansereau, F., Yammarino, F. J., & Markham, S. E. (1995). Leadership: the multiple-level approaches. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 97-109.
Dansereau, F., Graen, G., & Haga, W. J. (1975). A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: a longitudinal investigation of the role making process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 46-78.
Delehanty, H. & Kackson, P. (1997). Scared hoops: spiritual lessons of a hardwood warrior. 公牛王朝傳奇——菲爾．傑克森的籃球秘訣（杜默譯）。台北：智庫。
Dowrick, P.W. (1991). Practical guide to using video in the behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley.
Dowrick, P.W. & Dove, C. (1980). The use of modeling to improve the swimming performance of spina bifida children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 51-56.
Dyer, N.G., Hanges, P. J., & Hall, R. J. (2005). Applying multilevel confirmatory factor
analysis techniques to the study of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 149-167.
Eden, D. (1992). Leadership and expectations: pygmalion effects and other self-fulfilling prophecies in organizations. Leadership Quarterly, 3, 271–305.
Farh, J. L. & Cheng, B. S. (2000). A Cultural analysis of paternalistic leadership in Chinese organizations. In J.T. Li, A.S. Tsui, & E. Weldon (Eds.), Management and organizations in the Chinese context. London：Macmillan.
Feltz, D. L.（1988）.Self-confidence and sport performance. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 16, 423-457.
Ferron, J., Dailey, R., & Yi, Q. (2002). Effects of misspecifying the first-level error structure in two-level models of change. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 37, 379-403.
Ferron, J., Hess, M. R., Hogarty, K. Y., Dedrick, R. F., Kromrey, J. D., Lang, T. R., & Niles, J. (2004). Hierarchical linear modeling: a review of methodological issues and applications. Paper presented at the 2004 annual meeting of American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA.
Franks, I. M. & Maile, L.J. (1991). The use of video in sport skill acquisition. In P.W. Dowrick (Ed.), Practical guide to using video in the behavioral sciences (pp. 231-243). New York: Wiley.
Gilad, C. & Paul, D. B. (2002) . The role of different levels of leadership in predicting self and collective efficacy: evidence for discontinuity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87（3）, 549-556.
George, T. R., Feltz, D. L., & Chase, M. A. (1992). The effects of model similarity on self-efficacy and muscular endurance: a second look. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 14, 237-248.
Graen, G. B. & Cashman, J. (1975). A role-making model of leadership in formal organizations: a development approach. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership Frontiers. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press.
Graen, G. B. & Scandura, T. A. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9, 175-208.
Heuze, J. P., Sarrazin, P., Masiero, M.,& Raimbault, N. (2006).The relationships of perceived motivational climate to cohesion and collective efficacy in elite female teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 18, 201-218.
Horn, T. S. (2002). Coaching effectiveness in the sport domain. In T.S. Horn（Ed）, Adcances in sport psychology（2nd ed., pp.309-365）. Champaign, IL：Human Kinetics.
James, L., Demaree, R. G., & Wolf, G. (1984). Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 85-98.
James, L., Demaree, R. G., & Wolf, G. (1993). Rwg: an assessment of within-group interrater agreement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 306-309.
Kear, M. (2000). Concept analysis of self-efficacy. Graduate Research in Nursing, 2(2), No pagination.
Kirkpatrick, S. A. & Locke, E. A. (1996). Direct and indirect effects of three core charismatic leadership components on performance and attitudes.Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 36–51.
Kirschenbaum, D. S. & Bale, R. M. (1984). Cognitive-behavioral skills in sports: application to golf and speculations about soccer. In W. F. Straub & J. M. Williams (Eds.), Cognitive sport psychology (pp. 84-97). Lansing, New York: Sport Science Associates.
Kreft, I. K. & de Leeuw, J.(1998). Introducing multilevel modeling. SAGE.
Maddux, J. E. (1995). Self-efficacy theory: an introduction. In J.E. Maddux (Ed.), Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: theory, research, and application (pp. 3-33). New York: Plenum Press.
Maddux, J. E. & Meier, L. J. (1995). Self-efficacy and depression. In J. E. Maddux
(Ed.), Self-Efficacy, adaptation and adjustment: theory, research and application. NY: Plenum Press.
McCallum, J. & Verducci, T.（2004）. Hitting the skids: series slumps. Sports Illustrated, 53-55.
Mone, M. A. (1994). Comparative validity of two measures of self-efficacy in predicting academic goals and performance. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 516-529.
Morris, T. & Koehn, S. (2004). Self-confidence in sport and exercise. In T. Morris & J. Summers（Eds.）, Sport psychology: theory, application and issues(pp. 175-209). Milton, Qld: John Wiley & Sons Australia.
Nordin, S. & Cumming, J.（2005）. More than meets the eye: Investigating imagery type, direction, and outcome. The Sport Psychologist, 19,1-17.
O'Leary, A. (1985). Self-efficacy and health. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 23(4), 437-451.
Pye, L. W. (1981). The dynamics of Chinese politics. Cambridge, MA: OG & H.
Pye, L.W. (1985). Asian power and politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Raudenbush S. W. & Bryk. A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: applications and data analysis methods. London: Sage publications, Inc..
Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., Cheong, Y. F., & Congdon Jr., R. T. (2004). HLM 6: hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood, IL:Scientific Software International, Inc.
Redding, S. G. (1990). The spirit of Chinese capitalism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Sagie, A. (1997). Leader direction and employee participation in decision making: contradictory or compatible practices? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46, 387-452.
Schneider, B. (1983). Interactional psychology and organizational behavior. In L. L. Cummings, & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 1-31). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Schultz, D. (1990). Theories of personality (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Settoon, R. P., Bennett, N., & Liden, R. C. (1996). Social exchange in organizations: perceived organizational support, leader–member exchange, and employee reciprocity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 219–227.
Schunk, D. H. (1983). Reward contingencies and the development of children’s skills and self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(4), 511-518.
Schunk, D. H. (1995). Self-efficacy, motivation, and performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 7, 112-137.
Settoon, R. P., Bennett, N., & Liden, R. C. (1996). Social exchange in organizations:
perceived organizational support, leader–member exchange, and employee reciprocity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 219–227.
Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effect of charismatic leadership: a self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4, 577–594.
Silin, R. H. (1976). Leadership and values : the organization of large scale Taiwanese enterprises. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press.
Smoll, F. L. & Smith, R. E. (1988). Reducing stress in youth sport： theory and application. In F. L. Smoll, R. A. Magill, & M. J. Ash （Eds.）. Children in sport （229-249）. Champaign, IL：Human Kinetics.
Somech, A. (2003). Relationships of participative leadership with relational demography variables: a multi-level perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(8), 1003.
Treasure, D. C., Monson, J., & Lox, C. L. (1996). Relationship between self-efficacy, wrestling performance, and affect prior to competition. The Sport Psychologist, 10 , 73-83.
Vealey, R.S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport-confidence and competitive orientation: preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 221-246.
Vealey, R. S., Hayashi, S.W., Garner-Holman, M. & P. Giacobbi (1998). Sources of sport-confidence: conceptualization and instrument development. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, 54-80.
Vecchio, R. P. (1982). A further test of leadership effects due to between-group variation and within-group variation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 200-208.
Vince L. (2004). The Lombardi rules: 26 lessons from Vicni Lombardi--The World's Greatest Coach. 傳奇教練成功領導手冊（林宜萱譯）。台北：美商麥格羅．希爾出版社。
Walder, A. G. (1983). Organized dependency and cultures of authority in Chinese industry. Journal of Asian Studies, 43 (November), 51-76.
Weinberg, R.S. & Gould, D. (1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. (2nd. ed.). Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.
Weiss, M. R., McCullagh, P., Smith, A. L., & Berlant, A. R. (1998). Observational learning and fearful child: Influence of peer models on swimming skill performance and psychological responses. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 380-394.
Wester, K. R. & Weiss, M. R. (1991). The relationship between perceived coaching behaviors and group cohesion in high school football teams. The Sport Psychology, 5, 41-54.
Westwood, R. I. (1997). Harmony and patriarchy: the cultural basis for “paternalistic headship” among the overseas Chinese. Organization Studies, 18(3), 445-480.
Whitley, R. (1992). Business system in East Asia firms, markets, and societies. London: Sage.
Williams, M. L., Podsakoff, P. M., & Huber, V. (1992). Effects of group-level and individual-level variation in leader behaviors on subordinate attitudes and performance. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65, 115-129.
Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in organizations (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.